English Tea Names & Where They Come From

English Breakfast Tea
    The most popular tea blend in Britain, English Breakfast, was first devised by a tea master by the name of Drysdale in Edinburgh in the latter part of the 19th century. Because of the heaviness of the typical breakfast, Drysdale saw the need for a strong tea blend to accompany the meal. He named his blend "Breakfast Tea." Queen Victoria, when in residence at Balmoral in Scotland, purchased it. London tea merchants saw the marketing benefits and began producing their own blends, adding the word "English" to the name. English Breakfast teas are usually composed of black teas, including Keemun from China and Assam and Ceylon varieties. Other versions soon followed, such as Irish and Scottish Breakfast teas. These tend to have a higher proportion of Assam teas; Irish Breakfast teas are generally the strongest, while Scottish Breakfast teas use specific varieties to produce a "malty" or "oaky" taste.

Afternoon Tea
    English blends named "Afternoon Tea" are devised to provide a refreshing lift, rather than the eye-opening effect of the Breakfast teas. The emphasis is on flavor and less on strength. In many cases, Darjeeling is a major component of these blends. Darjeeling is grown in India at the foothills of the Himalayas. Known as the "champagne of teas," it is reminiscent of muscatel, with a light and delicate flavor. These blends are the perfect accompaniment for the foods served at a traditional English "tea."

Earl Grey
    Earl Grey is the second most popular tea blend in Britain, as well as a worldwide favorite. It is made of black China teas that have been flavored with oil of bergamot, a pear-shaped orange -- not to be confused with the plant known as bergamot, which is a mint. The tea was named after Charles Grey, the second Earl Grey and the Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1830 to 1834. There are many conflicting stories as to how the tea came to be named after him. One dramatic legend has Lord Grey saving a mandarin's son from drowning and being presented with the tea as a gift. However, Grey never visited China. Another story has it that the tea was the Earl's personal blend. Two tea companies, Twinings and Jacksons of Picadilly, claim to have the recipe that the Earl entrusted to them. Another version of the tea, Lady Grey, is composed of black tea and bergamot with the addition of Seville orange and lemon flavoring.

Royal Teas
    Tea blends that have been devised for royalty are also offered by certain tea merchants. King Edward VII gave permission to Fortnum & Mason to market his personal tea blend in 1902. It was named "Royal Blend Tea." It is composed of Ceylon pekoe and Assam teas and is described as having a honey-like smoothness and a traditional taste. In 1921, Twinings received royal permission to market "Prince of Wales" tea, named after the current Prince Edward. It was the prince's preferred blend of Chinese black teas, specifically selected to produce a light, delicate flavor.

Unusual British Folk Instruments

Crwth
    The crwth (pronounced to rhyme with "truth") is a bowed instrument with a violin neck attached to a box-shaped body. Originating in Wales, the crwth has six gut strings that are strung across a fretless fingerboard and traditionally tuned in pairs in upper and lower octaves on the notes G, C and D. The crwth was once popular across Europe, but now is relatively rare and only played by folk instrument specialists.

Bones
    Bones are a folk instrument made of cow ribs that are held and rattled together in the hand. This technique is similar to that used in the U.S. tradition of "playing the spoons" by rattling a pair of spoons together. Bones are traditional in both Britain and Ireland, and may consist of animal bones or an alternative material--such as wood--which emulates the bones' clacking sound. When animal bones are used, large ribs and the bones of the lower leg are considered to produce the best sound.

English Guitar
    Also known as a cittern, the English guitar enjoyed popularity in the 18th century as a drawing-room instrument. This small stringed instrument is similar in construction to the lute, although its straight sides and flat back are characteristics shared with the guitar family. The English guitar has a curved fingerboard and metal strings, which are played with the musician's fingertips. Originating in England, the English guitar was popular in other places, such as France and Virginia, and was also made in countries other than England, according to Monticello Explorer. The construction of the Portuguese guitar is almost identical to that of the English guitar.

History Behind Excalibur the Sword

Caliburn
    The historical chronicle "History of the Kings of Britain," written around 1135 by the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth, presents a very detailed account of King Arthur, whereby it is suggested that the king was born in the late fifth century and died around 542. In these chronicles, Excalibur is called Caliburn, and this sword is said to have been forged on the Isle of Avalon.

Robert de Boron
    Around the late 12th century, in his poem "Merlin," the French poet Robert de Boron describes how King Arthur pulled the Excalibur out of a stone. A Norse legend, "Sigurd," presents a similar account.

Sir Thomas Malory
    In Sir Thomas Malory's (1405 to 1471) "Le Morte d'Arthur," it is the Lady of the Lake who hands Excalibur to King Arthur. The sword is said to have an unbreakable blade and a scabbard that will protect the king from shedding any blood and from death itself on the battlefield. The sword is eventually returned to the Lady of the Lake and disappears forever.

Different Spellings
    Excalibur is spelled in several different ways in various accounts over the centuries. The alternate name, Caliburn, also takes various forms, including Caladfwich and Caledwich. According to Irish legend, the sword was named Caladbolg. Several sources say the sword was forged by an elfin blacksmith, which accounted for its magical powers. As these accounts were written by hand, authorities suggest the possibility that in some cases, the names were misspelled.

Camelot Project
    What would such a magnificent sword have looked like? Some accounts say it had a gold hilt and was studded with gleaming jewels to rival its shining blade possessing the brilliance of 30 torches. Images of Excalibur are part of a comprehensive study called "The Camelot Project," compiled at the University of Rochester in Rochester, New York (see Resources below). The project consists of Arthurian texts, images, bibliographies and basic information related to the tales of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table.

Swords in the Water
    It is interesting to note that the depositing of swords in sacred lakes and rivers was a Celtic practice from ancient times. It may even have been part of funeral rites. Excavations have uncovered axes, sickles and other weapons evidently disposed of in this way. Apparently, the River Thames in England was a popular place for depositing swords such as Excalibur.

The History of DNA Forensics

What is DNA?
    We're all born with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in our cells. This unique combination of markers is unique to everyone on Earth and can only be found more than once in identical twins. DNA takes exactly the same form in every cell of the body, which is why semen, saliva, blood, skin and other biological samples will give a forensic scientist a complete profile of the person to whom it belongs. On the technical side, there are four DNA bases or building blocks in DNA: Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine and Adenine, regularly referred to as C, G, T and A.

Overview of DNA's discovery
    When news broke that scientists Jim Watson and Francis Crick had figured out where to look to get a complete picture of an individual's hereditary information, only the scientific community and astute, forward-thinking people fully understood the implications of this break-through in 1953. The DNA helix, with confusing explanations of how it worked, were added to high school science books and slowly, DNA became a recognizable term used in everyday conversation. Watson and Crick's revelation of the "secret of life" languished nearly 30 years in laboratories and institutions of higher learning before law enforcement officials began to use it. A third researcher, based in the United Kingdom, proved the final link to the marriage between DNA and the International law enforcement community.

DNA is further explored as a forensic tool
    The Watson/Crook collaboration earned honors and recognition, but for those in the law enforcement community seeking to hasten their conviction rates, Alec Jeffreys, an English geneticist, is the man to whom they owe the biggest debt. In 1985, Jeffreys conceived the idea of DNA fingerprinting (also known as DNA typing and DNA profiling) when he noticed that DNA samples contained adjacent sequences of markers that repeated over and over again. Comparing specimens, he concluded that these patterns of repetition made them unique to every individual on earth. He began experimenting with the identification of individuals using what has come to be known as his VNTR system (variable number of tandem repeats). From the repeats, RFLPs (restriction fragment length polymorphisms) were identified and added a final step in the art of DNA forensics.

Jeffrey' methodology stands up to a landmark test
    British immigration authorities learned about Jeffreys' work and asked for his help solving a double homicide. He took samples collected at the crime scene and proved that only one perpetrator could have murdered the two victims. On that day, history was made, and the British legal and law enforcement communities were forever changed. As you can imagine, the international law enforcement agencies are not without their grapevines. The United States--and particularly the FBI--adopted DNA testing as the ultimate crime solving tool, despite the high cost of conducting the test. Since 1985, DNA testing and profiling has solved crimes, served as legal bases for opening old cases, freed convicted felons, and become the litmus test for the legal community seeking to convict or clear suspects. While the price of DNA testing continues to carry a hefty price tag, hundreds of public forensic labs and a growing number of private facilities are currently performing DNA testing around the globe.

How DNA is used in today's forensics investigation
    At the crime scene, forensic scientists collect samples of often-minute biological materials--including blood, bone, hair, body fluids and tissue. A DNA profile is run and a panel of markers is established to identify the contributor of the sample. The DNA profile is then compared to samples lifted from other crime scenes, those taken from suspects and databases of DNA fingerprints collected from other sources. If there is no match, a suspect is ruled out. If there is a match, this doesn't mean that a person is declared guilty, but the likelihood that he was present at the crime scene can't be refuted.

    In some cases, when DNA isn't available for comparison, the forensics team may request a sample of a relative's DNA since all humans inherit half of their markers from each parent. Additionally, a comparative database known as CODIS is available to all participating law enforcement agencies. This central resource is so efficient, it could easily have matched up evidence left behind by serial killer Ted Bundy from crime scenes stretching from Florida to Washington State by performing a single laboratory test.

Facts About the Battle of Lexington

Time Frame
    The Battle of Lexington occurred on April 19, 1775, in Lexington, Massachusetts. This battle began the Revolutionary War.

History
    Many know the story of Paul Revere riding through the town exclaiming, "The British are Coming! The British are coming!" That was the case, and thanks to his words, 40 minutemen awaited British troops under the command of Capt. John Parker.

Significance
    British troops were passing through Lexington to head to Concord to steal the settlers' military supplies. The settlers wanted to stop the British from reaching their destination.

Theories/Speculation
    The Battle of Lexington began when British soldiers shot at settlers after a single gunshot when off. Historians believe this was an accidental gunshot from one of the settlers.

Conclusion
    Although the Battle of Lexington is seen as a victory for the British, when they arrived in Concord, all the supplies had vanished, leading to another battle.

What is the History of Land Rover Cars?

Prototype
    The vehicle was initially built on a Jeep chassis and bodied with surplus aircraft aluminum making it resistant to rust, adding to its longevity.

Military use
    The British Army started using the Series II Land Rover, powered by a 2.5-liter 4-cylinder engine after 1958.

New Chapter
        British Leyland acquired Land Rover in 1967, but the company failed 8 years later. Rover became a subsidiary of the newly nationalized British Leyland.

Range Rover
        The Range Rover was imported to the United States in 1987. Two years later, the company debuted the Discovery model.

New Owner
    Rover became the Rover Group in 1988 and was acquired by BMW AG some 6 years later.

Ford and Tata
    BMW sold the Rover Group to the Ford Motor Company in 2000, which began equipping the vehicle with Jaguar engines. Ford sold the company to Tata Motors of India in 2008.

Victorian School Activities

Crossword
    Giving out a crossword relating to the Victorian period is a good way to test the children's memory of what you have taught them and to ensure that they understand everything. A crossword basically serves as a test, but it is in a familiar puzzle form, and as such should be enjoyed by the children. The aim of a crossword is to decipher the clues and work out the correct letters to go into the blocks. See Resources for a sample Victorian crossword.

Victorian Writing Materials
    Teach the children about the different things Victorian children used to learn to write on. Try to find an old-style Victorian sand tray for them to try. A sand tray is a tray with a shallow layer of sand in the bottom, and children write with their fingers and shake the tray to erase. Show the children a slate, and let them draw a picture on it if you wish. If you are teaching older children, introduce them to dip pens and ink, and get them to copy some sentences down to get used to how Victorians wrote.

Victorian Shopping
    Give the children a list of products that includes meat, vegetables, dairy, clothing, jewelry and medicine. Ask them where they would go to buy these products. Teach them about how in Victorian times, right through to the 1960s, there were no supermarkets, and certainly no Targets or K-Marts, and people would have to go to several different shops to do all of their shopping. Print out some Victorian style shop signs, from the Resources, and put them up around the class. Split the children into groups and give them a shopping list to complete.

Being a Child in the Victorian Era
    Teach the children about what it would be like to be a child in the Victorian times. Explain that they may have had to work in the mines, a factory or on a farm, until 1880, when it became compulsory for children under 12 to go to school. Teach the children about Victorian schools, punishment with the cane, and the dunce cap. Children like the idea of the dunce cap, so if you can, make or buy a makeshift one for a demonstration. Explain how embarrassing it would have been in Victorian times to be made to wear it. Ask the children to fill out the "Children at Work" worksheet, available in Resources.

Which Countries Belonged to the British Empire?

History
    The image of the British man smoking a tobacco-filled pipe dates back to the 1500s, when England had its first introduction to tobacco, according to Cancer Research UK. However, tobacco's use remained relatively limited until the late 1800s, when the invention of the cigarette made smoking popular. Women began smoking in the 1920s. By the 1940s, female smokers averaged 2.4 cigarettes a day, while four in five men smoked tobacco in 1948.

Statistics
    In the mid 20th century, 82 percent of British men and 41 percent of British women smoked tobacco, according to Cancer Research UK. Since then, the number of smokers has steadily declined. In 2008, approximately one in five British men and women smoke cigarettes. Thirty percent of smokers are between the ages of 20 and 24, and as smokers age, smoking rates decline to 13 percent for Brits over age 60.

Underage Smoking
    It is illegal in England to sell tobacco products to anyone under age 18. However, Cancer Research UK states that 14 percent of English children age 15 or younger are smokers--and that is only counting children who admitted to it. The 2007 Health Survey for England measured the levels of the tobacco metabolite cotinine in children's saliva and found that approximately 20 percent of children had enough cotinine to signify that they smoked regularly.

Cancer Deaths
    Smoking causes 28 percent of the United Kingdom's cancer deaths and 86 percent of its lung cancer deaths, according to Cancer Research UK. Since mid-century, it has caused six million deaths in Great Britain; half of these deaths cut people's lives short by 20 years, on average.

Laws
    The United Kingdom passed the Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Act in 2002, which made tobacco advertisements illegal. In July 2007, England enacted a ban on smoking in indoor public places, including pubs. Since then, anyone caught smoking illegally faces a fine of £30 to £200, and businesses who allow it face fines of as much as £2,500, according to BBC News. This law is intended to reduce the incidence of second-hand smoke and encourage smokers to quit.

Mol's Coffee House

Located in the beautiful Cathedral Close, in Exeter is the timber framed Mol's Coffee House, dated 1596. The building was named after Thomas Mol, and Italian man, at a time when coffee had perhaps not even been introduced into England. Devon born explorer and buccaneer Sir Francis Drake is said to have used Mol's as a meeting place with people such as Frobisher, Greville, Hawkins & Sir Walter Raleigh. It may have even been during such meetings that Drake had planned how to foil the Spanish Armada. Drake was the fist English navigator to sail around the World between 1577 and 1580.

The building, with it's Dutch style 1880's gable, is now used as a map and stationary shop. Inside the building, a frieze bears 46 coats of arms, including those of Drake and Raleigh. It is also known to be the only building in Europe with a unique star-shaped ceiling. Not one of the 230 panes of glass is perfectly square.

Manchester History

Manchester History
The city of Manchester has its own unique history and culture. Within a span of a century, this town has become an industrial centre. It even has the world's first public library and passenger railway station. The Spinning Jenny was invented here and so was the first computer.

Roman Times
The name of the city originated from the word 'Mamucium', which is what it was called during the Roman times. Around 79 AD a wooden fort was built by the Romans at the spot where the rivers Irwell and Medlock confluence. The name is a Celtic word, which means "a breast-shaped hill".

Later, this fort was re-built with stone. The placement of this fort was quite strategic for the Romans because it guarded a road with which the river Irwell could be crossed, leading towards the North.

It was around this fort that a settlement soon began to get established. These Roman troops were mostly mercenaries from different parts of the world. Several finds have been made which include a Mithraic temple and even a rare Christian word square (these are considered to be anagrams with which Christian groups recognised each other). You can find these at the Manchester Museum.

Saxon Times
In the Dark Ages, this fort was abandoned by the Romans. In the Saxon times, the settlement shifted to where the rivers Irwell and Irk confluence. Edward the Elder is said to have sent men to take care of the fort because it still served its strategic purpose.

The name of Mamucium then became the Anglo-Saxon Mameceaster which later on became Manchester. In later years, the fort decayed. In the 18th century, a railway line was built over it.

This settlement was largely destroyed by William the Conqueror in his Harrying of the North. Roger the Poitevan gave the 'Honour of Manchester' to the De Gredley family. The word 'Honour' implies a collection of manors in the area where Manchester was the centre for administrative purposes. They and their descendants used Manchester as a hunting lodge.

Manchester was also a part of Salfordshire at one point. But due to some administrative issues, it was separated from Salford and was issued another charter.

Manchester gained its right to hold an annual fair in 1223 and in 1301 it became a market town by gaining its first charter.

In the 14th century, Flemish weavers settled in Manchester and the town began to produce wool and linen. Based on the prosperity brought on by the wool trade, the town became a major industrial centre. Thomas de la Warre who was the Lord of the Manor of Manchester as well as a priest, got the Pope's and King Henry V's licence for constructing a collegiate church. This later became the Manchester Cathedral.

In the 16th century, Manchester was an established industrial centre and its wool trade flourished. Fustian weaving techniques also began to ensure that it became a hub for the textile industry.

In the 17th century, Manchester became a centre of Puritanism. It was a major player in the English civil war.

After the civil war, Humphrey Chetham bought the old College buildings and converted them into a school. There was a collection of books which became the first free public library. It is open and free to use even today.

Industrial Revolution
In the latter part of the 18th century, Manchester became the centre for the Industrial Revolution. Cotton began to be imported and this resulted in a large boom in the textile industry. The city developed as a centre for distribution of raw cotton and spun yarn. In 1767, the spinning jenny was invented in Manchester. With the onset of steam powered cotton mills spreading all over the town, the city of Manchester began to be called 'Cottonopolis'.

Consequently, the transportation links to and from the city were developed. A railway line was built. The city's population grew and exploded. A system of 'laissez-faire' trading was adopted (which is the basis of free trade in today's world).

The end of the 18th century however saw a recession in the cotton trade industry. This caused many riots and several measures were undertaken to provide food for the hungry masses.

Towards the beginning of the 19th Century, Manchester had its own newspaper called 'The Manchester Guardian' and its first MPs were elected. In 1837, Manchester became a Municipal Borough.

In the Twentieth Century
The early part of the 20th century was witness to the entry of other industries into Manchester. Some of them were flour mills, making of biscuits and cereals. Also the Tourism became an interesting part of Manchester's profile. During World War II, engineering industries thrived and prospered.

In 1992, Manchester saw the birth of the metro-link trams. The later part of the 20th century also saw Manchester become a booming retail centre with several shopping malls and shopping centres opening and thriving.

Hidden History on your Doorstep

The Town Hall is recognisable from all over Sheffield by its imposing Vulcan clock tower. It is right in the heart of the city, at the top of Fargate shopping street and next to the Peace Gardens. Tours are available to see the marble, chandeliers and ornate wood panelled interior, home to Sheffield City Council offices.

The City Hall is another landmark with its oval hall and coliseum-like entrance; this is a popular venue for concerts, comedy, orchestras.

As Sheffield steel is famous all over the world, the cutlery industry is synonymous with the city; Cutler's Hall is a good place to discover local history. The formal hall houses the Cutler company's collection of silver. It is open to pre-booked groups.

A hidden treasure is the Sheffield General Cemetery, which is a haven of quiet off the busy Ecclesall Road. Opened in 1836 to bury the dead from Sheffield's middle-class non-conformist population, it is one of the most important Victorian cemeteries in the country with over 77,000 buried there. There is evidence Sheffield's Victorian steel industry in the decorative wrought ironwork.

Sheffield Botanical Gardens were designed in 1833. There are 3 glass pavilion hothouses and the site has many listed buildings and over 5000 kinds of plants. The hothouses are currently being reconstructed to their former glory, in keeping with the period and the botanical collection is also being restored.

The site of the Cathedral of St Peter and Paul has been consecrated land since 800AD. The present building has architecture from the 15th, 18th and 20th centuries, there is also a fine collection of stained glass. As well as daily services, there are regular concerts and lunchtime organ recitals.

History Behind Excalibur the Sword

Caliburn
    The historical chronicle "History of the Kings of Britain," written around 1135 by the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth, presents a very detailed account of King Arthur, whereby it is suggested that the king was born in the late fifth century and died around 542. In these chronicles, Excalibur is called Caliburn, and this sword is said to have been forged on the Isle of Avalon.

Robert de Boron
    Around the late 12th century, in his poem "Merlin," the French poet Robert de Boron describes how King Arthur pulled the Excalibur out of a stone. A Norse legend, "Sigurd," presents a similar account.

Sir Thomas Malory
    In Sir Thomas Malory's (1405 to 1471) "Le Morte d'Arthur," it is the Lady of the Lake who hands Excalibur to King Arthur. The sword is said to have an unbreakable blade and a scabbard that will protect the king from shedding any blood and from death itself on the battlefield. The sword is eventually returned to the Lady of the Lake and disappears forever.

Different Spellings
    Excalibur is spelled in several different ways in various accounts over the centuries. The alternate name, Caliburn, also takes various forms, including Caladfwich and Caledwich. According to Irish legend, the sword was named Caladbolg. Several sources say the sword was forged by an elfin blacksmith, which accounted for its magical powers. As these accounts were written by hand, authorities suggest the possibility that in some cases, the names were misspelled.

Camelot Project
    What would such a magnificent sword have looked like? Some accounts say it had a gold hilt and was studded with gleaming jewels to rival its shining blade possessing the brilliance of 30 torches. Images of Excalibur are part of a comprehensive study called "The Camelot Project," compiled at the University of Rochester in Rochester, New York (see Resources below). The project consists of Arthurian texts, images, bibliographies and basic information related to the tales of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table.

Swords in the Water
    It is interesting to note that the depositing of swords in sacred lakes and rivers was a Celtic practice from ancient times. It may even have been part of funeral rites. Excavations have uncovered axes, sickles and other weapons evidently disposed of in this way. Apparently, the River Thames in England was a popular place for depositing swords such as Excalibur.

The History of MG Sports Cars

Morris Garages
    William Morris opened his company, Morris Motors Limited, in England in 1912. A subsidiary of this company was called Morris Garages. This name would eventually be shortened to MG when Morris Garages started manufacturing cars in 1923. Morris Garages General Manager Cecil Kimber felt that the public wanted a nice-looking car that could be at home on country roads and on race tracks. It also needed to be easy to maintain and moderately priced. The first MG had a 4-cylinder, 750-cubic-centimeter engine and could do 82 mph. The following year, the car won a gold medal at the Lands End competition.

MG Car Company
    The success of the first MG sports car led to the creation of a new company in 1928 called the MG Car Company with its factory in Abington. Production designs followed a pattern. New improvements were first introduced in a prototype car. If successful, the designs were incorporated into a racing model of the car and then finally, the road model. This worked well for the company, which continued to win racing and speed awards.

The 1940s
    MG production was interrupted during World War II as England shifted over to war production. Following the war, production resumed and expanded. By 1947, the MG sports car began making its appearance on U.S. roads. The MG was smaller than American cars at the time, but its performance earned the respect of U.S. drivers.

British Motor Corporation
    The British Motor Corporation absorbed MG Car Company in 1952. As part of BMC, the MG line expanded and sales grew. MG saw its best years in the late 1950s and 1960s. The 1970s saw tough economic times, and the MG plant in Abington was closed in 1980. The closure caused an uproar among dealers and drivers.

Modern Versions
    Austin Rover manufactured faster versions of the Metro, Maestro and Montego ranges that wore the MG badge between 1982 and 1991. The MG RV8, a roadster with a V8 engine was introduced in 1992, but it was not widely produced. Then in 1995, the MG F roadster was introduced. Its design recalled the look of the classic MGs. It was a two-seater that buyers liked and bought. BMW eventually absorbed the model under its own brand. Nanjing Automobile bought the MG brand and assets in 2005, which was then bought by SAIC in 2007. Since then, SAIC has started production of new MGs. Some are larger sedans, but the MG 3 is a smaller, sportier model.

List of Top British Universities

University of Oxford
        The University of Oxford is the oldest university for English-speakers in the world. It is also the number-one ranked school on the 2010 "Times Online Good University Guide." While there is no exact date of its founding, instruction began as early as 1096 and the school's growth escalated in 1167 when King Henry II banned his country's scholars from attending the University of Paris. Oxford's long list of notable facts include maintaining the United Kingdom's oldest museum, having the world's largest repository of historic scientific tools and being home to the world's most diverse collection of plants in its botanical garden. Twenty-six British prime ministers are graduates of Oxford. There are over 20,000 students enrolled in the highly selective university, including approximately 11,800 undergraduates and 8,700 graduates. Undergraduates study in 30 colleges, and there are eight graduate colleges.

        University of Oxford
        University Offices
        Wellington Square
        Oxford OX1 2JD
        United Kingdom
        011-44-1865-270000
        ox.ac.uk

University of Cambridge
        Founded in 1209 by a breakaway group of scholars from Oxford, the University of Cambridge is the second oldest university in Great Britain. Its famous Cambridge University Press began printing in 1584, making it the oldest printer and publisher in the world. The school is known for its place in the history of math and science with alumni and faculty such as Sir Isaac Newton, Sir Francis Bacon (inventor of the scientific method), Charles Darwin and physicist Stephen Hawking. There are 31 colleges and 150 departments, schools and centers at Cambridge. There are over 12,000 undergraduates and 6,000 graduates at Cambridge. It is ranked second on the 2010 "Times Online Good University Guide."

        University of Cambridge
        The Old Schools
        Trinity Lane
        Cambridge CB2 1TN
        United Kingdom
        011-44-1223-337733
        cam.ac.uk

Imperial College London
        While Imperial College London does not have multiple centuries of tradition like Oxford and Cambridge, it is still considered among the best universities in the world. Founded in 1907, it is a science research institution with highly-regarded medicine and engineering programs. Faculty members include Nobel Prize winners and fellows in Great Britain's most prestigious science societies. It has rigorous entrance requirements and a dropout rate of less than three percent. There are approximately 8,500 undergraduates and 4,500 graduates. Imperial College London is ranked third on the 2010 "Times Online Good University Guide."

        Imperial College London
        South Kensington Campus
        London SW7 2AZ
        United Kingdom
        011-44-2075-895111
        imperial.ac.uk

How to Locate Old English Movies

1- Read about the history of the British cinema. Jot down important information and movies titles in a notebook. Use the information to research and make informed decisions about English movies. 2- Visit Britishcinemagreats.com. Read about the history of the British cinema to acquire an overview about the history of English filmmaking. Make a list of old English films such as "The 39 Steps," "A Man For All Seasons" and "Hamlet." Make a list of important directors such as Alfred Hitchcock and Alexander Korda. Compile a list of English actors such as Laurence Olivier, Alec Guinness and Basil Rathbone. 3- Search the "Classics" section of the local movie rental store. Classic movies are usually listed alphabetically by the name of the movies. Some movie rental stores categorize movies by the director's name. 4- Visit online sites such as the Internet Movie Database(IMDb) and Turner Classic Movies (TCM.com). Search for English movies by title, director and actor. Use other search methods such as genre and decade. 5- Search cable television channels that feature old movies.

The History of Military Flags

Presenting the Flags
    Military flags are usually presented by the monarch or some very important figure. For example, the King or Queen presented many regimental flags to units of the British army in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Design
    Each unit's flag used different symbols or numbers to make it unique. Sometimes, units added their battle honors to their flag. The collection of battle flags held by the Ohio Historical Society contains a number of different examples.

A Focal Point
    Historically, flags served an important purpose in battle situations. In the confusion of battle, they helped a soldier keep track of where his unit was, and if things went wrong they were a useful rallying point.

Trooping the Color
    Since the flag posed as a focal point, armies organized ceremonies to show the flag color to all ranks of the regiment for easy recognition. This is the origin of the well-known "Trooping the Color" ceremony in London.

Color Guard
    Flags were so important in battlefield situations that a team of soldiers were specifically assigned to protect them, known as the "color guard."

Today
    Today the importance of military flags is almost entirely symbolic, and their use is primarily in ceremonial occasions.

About Victorian Furniture

Time Frame
    Victorian furniture was produced during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The British empire was constantly expanding; Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. The mood in Britain during this era began with confidence and optimism, leading to an economic boom, but by the end of the period, doubts about Britain's place in the world were increasing, according to the University of Wisconsin Oshkosh. Meanwhile, the rise of the middle class due to the Industrial Revolution and increased mechanization of production had an effect on how furniture was made.

Characteristics
    Antique Victorian furniture refers to both mass-produced pieces and hand-crafted pieces by designers like the Herter Brothers, Allen and Brother, Merklen Brothers, John Henry Belter, Alexander Roux and R.J. Horner, according to Collectors Weekly. Early Victorian furniture was made for the first time in history with the idea of the consumer in the forefront, reflecting the increase in numbers of middle-class homes. Early Victorian furniture is often serious, imposing, amply ornamented and heavily characterized by revivals. Mahogany and rosewood were the preferred woods, while oak, admired for its Englishness, made a nationalist comeback, explains Furniture Styles.

Revivals
    The Gothic Revival style belongs to the period circa 1830-1860, with furniture characterized by design features such such as arches, quatrefoils, trefoils, spires and crockets. Rococo Revival (c. 1840-1865) furniture includes French-influenced high-style furniture with design features such as naturalistic flowers, shells and fruit, C-scrolls and S-scrolls, and sinewy curved lines. Common Rococo Revival furniture used walnut wood, while rosewood was used for top-end pieces. Renaissance Revival (c. 1860-1890) furniture uses masculine arches, cartouches, animal and human figures, inlaid panels, burl panels, gilt incising and ormulu mounts, according to Collectors Weekly.

Later Movements
    The later Victorian era saw a rebellion against mass-produced, machine-made furniture. The English designer William Morris started the Arts and Crafts Movement in 1861 in an effort to improve the Victorian public's tastes by returning to medieval-style craftsmanship. Followers of Morris started the Aesthetic Movement in the 1880s and incorporated the influence of the newly discovered arts of Japan, according to Antique Marks. The Eastlake Movement was named after Charles L. Eastlake (1833-1906), an English architect whose book "Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, Upholstery, and Other Details" was extremely popular in its 1872 American reprinting, explains Buffalo Architecture and History. Furniture of the Eastlake and Aesthetic Movement (c. 1880-1890) is less showily complicated than the other Victorian styles, featuring stylized natural elements, rectangular forms and severe lines. Finer pieces may feature marquetry, inlay and veneering, according to Collectors Weekly.

Tips
    If you wish to decorate an American Victorian home to period, avoid following the style to its cluttered extremity and mix pieces from earlier periods with the best of the Victorian, advises Richmond Huntley in Collector's Weekly. Huntley recommends rosewood pieces by John Belter, New York's leading cabinetmaker from 1844 to 1865.

How to Find Out If I Am Related to British Royalty

1- Before you dig in to your research, you'll need Ancestral File Numbers for your relatives. On Family Search, type the names of your parents, grandparents or great-grandparents into the main search field, and include their birth years and places of birth if possible. Look for matches under "Ancestral File," and click on the record if one appears. Note the numbers next to "AFN" -- these are the Ancestral File Numbers you'll need.

2-Visit Digital Roots' Relative Finder. This website can be used to search directly for royalty in your ancestry. Choose the first option, "I want to see how I'm related to notable historic individuals" and enter an Ancestral File Number that you obtained in Step 1.

3- Click "Finished" after entering your relative's AFN into the website. Select the groups you wish to search for, such as "Kings and Queens." Click on "Request Report" to have the site find matches in your ancestry. See if you're related to royalty. Even if you don't recognize any members of the British royal family on your list, look for Charlemagne, who had twenty children and thus has a prestigious family tree. He was King of the Franks from the year 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800.

4- Use family tree websites such as Ancestry, Family Search and Genes Reunited to build your family tree as much as possible. Using census records and birth, marriage and death indexes, construct your family tree as far back as possible. Spend time researching until you uncover more family members. If you can find their Ancestral File Numbers, make note of them.

5- Enter any new information you can find into Relative Finder. If your first search wasn't successful, using an older relative's Ancestral File Number can turn up better results. Remember, the chances are good that anybody of European descent is related to the royal family if you go back far enough.

6- Use RoyaList to search through genealogical information for the British royal family. The website has a database of all people who have been connected to the royal family, and it also has a Royalty Kinship calculator that you can use to find royal ancestors, but you'll need to sign up for that service.

The History of the Peace Hand Sign

V for Victory
    In 1941, a Belgian refugee in England made a BBC broadcast to his countrymen urging them to take up the letter "V" as a symbol of defiance against the Nazis. The man, a member of the exiled Belgian government named Victor de Lavaleye, said he chose "V" as a "rallying emblem" because it was the first letter of the word "Victoire" in French, "Vrijheid" in Flemish and "Victory" in English. The idea spread across England and the Nazi-occupied territories, thanks in large part to the BBC, which asked listeners to chalk the mark "V" wherever they could.

Winston Churchill
    British Prime Minister Winston Churchill also helped publicize the V for Victory hand sign. He adopted the habit of flashing the sign whenever photographers were near. However, to the dismay of his handlers, Churchill began by making the gesture with his palm facing inward, which is considered a rude gesture in England. Eventually, Churchill switched to making the sign with his palm facing out.

Anti-war Movement
    During the protests against the Vietnam War, some protesters began using the V for Victory hand sign to denote "peace" instead of war. John Lennon got into the habit of making the gesture for photographers, just as Churchill once had. Ironically, Nixon was also using the symbol at the same time to mean "victory."

Today
    The V for Victory sign is now recognized around the world and was flashed by female voters leaving the polling stations during Iraq's first free elections. The sign is also recognized in many parts of the world as a symbol of peace. In Japan and other parts of Asia, people often make the gesture in photographs, often without knowing exactly why. Some theorize that the habit derives from a peace sign flashed by U.S. figure skater Janet Lynn when she fell on the ice during the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo.

Story of the Mack Truck Bulldog

History of the Term
    During World War I, Mack supplied thousands of its AC model heavy duty trucks to both the United States military and that of Great Britain. British soldiers were impressed with the capabilities and resilience of the trucks, and legend has it that the soldiers began referring to the trucks as "Mack bulldogs." Whether it was the British soldiers themselves or, as has also been suggested, a trade publication that referred to the trucks as having "the tenacity of a British bull dog," the nickname stuck, and in 1992 the company adopted the bulldog as its corporate symbol.

History of the Emblem
    The bulldog first appeared on Mack trucks, not as a hood ornament but as an image on a sheet metal plate that was riveted to the sides of the truck cabs beginning in 1922. It was first used on the AB chain-drive trucks and the dual reduction carrier-drive trucks. Later, the plate would also be displayed on M model off-highway trucks.

History of the Hood Ornament
    Again according to corporate legend, the bulldog hood ornament was conceived by engineer Alfred Masury in 1932 while he was in the hospital recuperating from an operation. Masury, as the story goes, carved the dog from either wood or a bar of soap. Regardless of how the dog was first designed, it is certain that Masury received a patent for the hood ornament in 1932, and the bulldog has stood atop the hood of Mack trucks since then.

The Bulldog as Icon
    In 2009, Mack moved its corporate headquarters from Allentown, Pennsylvania, where the company had been based since 1905. Local news outlets noted the removal of the large gold bulldog statue that had been located outside the headquarters building in preparation for its installation at the new headquarters in Greensboro, North Carolina. WPMT-TV called the bulldog "as symbolic of Allentown as the PPL building and the Allentown Fair."