How the London law enforcers carried out raids.
We are very familiar with how today's police forces conduct a raid on the house of a drug supplier, or the venue of some other illegal activity, but how did the authorities conduct a raid in the early 19th century? This is one example.
The "pernicious games" of roulette and the similar game of roly-poly were illegal in England in 1822 (18 Geo. 2. C34.), but the games still flourished. A house on one of the most affluent streets in London, 33 Pall Mall, was the venue of one notorious gambling den. It had already been raided by officers acting under a magistrate's warrant, but they had failed to seize the evidence, their entry having been delayed long enough for the evidence to be disposed of.
The owners of the den now reinforced the premises further. At the entrance of the house was a stout wooden door. On the first floor there was a three inch door fastened on the inside with four heavy bolts and two bars of iron across the door. The gaming area was situated on the second floor, and again this was behind a bulky wooden door. Porters acting as look-outs were posted on the first and ground floors.
A new raid was organised after a disgruntled gambler upset with his losses was ejected from the premises. He went to the Magistrate to lay information that the premises was back in use as a common gambling house.
Within three hours, a number of Bow Street Runners - this was before the advent of the Metropolitan Police - were in place ready to raid the house. It was decided that forcing their way through the front door with sledge hammers would take too long, so a more subtle plan was called for.
A number of the officers made their way to the street and loitered there without raising the suspicions of the porters. Another officer posing as a tradesman carried a ladder pass the house. He then quickly placed the ladder against a first floor window and swiftly scaled the ladder into the house followed some of his colleagues. Taking this route they had by-passed the ground and first floor doors.
The surprise was complete, they found the look-out on the first floor asleep, and despite cries of alarm from the porters on the ground floor, the final door was forced open and fifteen gentlemen gamblers with their equipment were caught red-handed and taken before the Magistrate.
Looking back, there's not really much difference between then and now. Subtlety and surprise are the key to success.
The Peelers
The origin of the nickname for the first police officers.
Peelers was the name given to the first police officers. They were named after Sir Robert Peel who introduced them, first in Ireland, and then in England. They were also known as Bobbies in England.
Peel was the Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1812 until 1818 at a time when Ireland was a troubled country with a disaffected country population suffering from agricultural depression, secret societies, gangs and sectarian violence.
Peel introduced the Peace of Preservation Act 1814 which established a Peace Preservation Force. The Force acted more as a security and paramilitary force than a force to prevent crime and protect property as it later became in England. Its main aim was to deal with any form of unrest and rioting, particularly in the country districts. A mobile unit of officers and a magistrate which would be dispatched to an area to quash any trouble. The officers soon became known as Peelers. Later in 1836, after a number of changes, the force became known as the Irish Constabulary.
Peelers was the name given to the first police officers. They were named after Sir Robert Peel who introduced them, first in Ireland, and then in England. They were also known as Bobbies in England.
Peel was the Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1812 until 1818 at a time when Ireland was a troubled country with a disaffected country population suffering from agricultural depression, secret societies, gangs and sectarian violence.
Peel introduced the Peace of Preservation Act 1814 which established a Peace Preservation Force. The Force acted more as a security and paramilitary force than a force to prevent crime and protect property as it later became in England. Its main aim was to deal with any form of unrest and rioting, particularly in the country districts. A mobile unit of officers and a magistrate which would be dispatched to an area to quash any trouble. The officers soon became known as Peelers. Later in 1836, after a number of changes, the force became known as the Irish Constabulary.
General Matthew speaking in Parliament in 1817. Peel was present, hence the aside.
".. while the former was liable to be carried off without a moment’s notice by a set of fellows well known in Ireland (he meant no disrespect to the Right Hon. Gentleman) by the name of Peelers and then to be harried before a set of intolerant and bigoted Orange magistrates."
Report on Parliament - Caledonian Mercury (Edinburgh, Scotland), Thursday, June 19, 1817
In 1822, Peel was appointed Home Secretary of the British Government and he introduced a number of changes to the criminal law; and in 1829 in London, he founded a civil police force for the preservation and maintenance of law and order: The Metropolitan Police. Similar forces soon became established across the country.
The London officers were also called Peelers, and were also known as Bobbies. The origin of the latter is generally accepted as being named after Peel’s first name, but some suggest that the name came from Bobby the Beadle. Before the foundation of the police, these were guardians of some of the London squares. Armed with canes, they kept order and made sure the squares were only used by residents and their guests.
Since then the police have been called many other names including: copper, cops, slops, scufty, bulky, rozzers, old bill, and crushers.
".. while the former was liable to be carried off without a moment’s notice by a set of fellows well known in Ireland (he meant no disrespect to the Right Hon. Gentleman) by the name of Peelers and then to be harried before a set of intolerant and bigoted Orange magistrates."
Report on Parliament - Caledonian Mercury (Edinburgh, Scotland), Thursday, June 19, 1817
In 1822, Peel was appointed Home Secretary of the British Government and he introduced a number of changes to the criminal law; and in 1829 in London, he founded a civil police force for the preservation and maintenance of law and order: The Metropolitan Police. Similar forces soon became established across the country.
The London officers were also called Peelers, and were also known as Bobbies. The origin of the latter is generally accepted as being named after Peel’s first name, but some suggest that the name came from Bobby the Beadle. Before the foundation of the police, these were guardians of some of the London squares. Armed with canes, they kept order and made sure the squares were only used by residents and their guests.
Since then the police have been called many other names including: copper, cops, slops, scufty, bulky, rozzers, old bill, and crushers.
Did 221b Baker Street exist?
The home of Sherlock Holmes.
The release of another film about the fictional British detective Sherlock Holmes, starring Robert Downey, jnr., and Jude Law, has again awoken interest in the address of 221b Baker Street, Sherlock Holmes's address. But does this address exist, or which address was it based upon?
Fans and aficionados of the Sherlock Holmes stories have debated this for many years and proposed many suggestions based upon descriptions and clues in the books.
Firstly, all agree that the present 221b Baker Street is not the address from the books. It is fictitious. The present 221b Baker Street, now the site of the Sherlock Holmes Museum, is a special address recognised by the Post Office. It is in fact, at number 239.
The release of another film about the fictional British detective Sherlock Holmes, starring Robert Downey, jnr., and Jude Law, has again awoken interest in the address of 221b Baker Street, Sherlock Holmes's address. But does this address exist, or which address was it based upon?
Fans and aficionados of the Sherlock Holmes stories have debated this for many years and proposed many suggestions based upon descriptions and clues in the books.
Firstly, all agree that the present 221b Baker Street is not the address from the books. It is fictitious. The present 221b Baker Street, now the site of the Sherlock Holmes Museum, is a special address recognised by the Post Office. It is in fact, at number 239.
The number 221b indicates that it was a flat or apartment above number 221. Number 221 did not exist at the time the books were written, and the street was known as Upper Baker Street. When the street was renamed and renumbered, 221 became the offices of the Abbey National Building Society.
Many fans, authors and amateur detective have scoured the books and walked the streets and alleys trying to confirm the description given in The Empty House, the story which followed the adventures of Holmes three years after his supposed death at the hands of Moriarty. Holmes and Watson walked through the streets of London to a property where Holmes asked,
"Do you know where we are?" he whispered.
"Surely that is Baker Street," I answered, staring through the dim window.
"Exactly. We are in Camden House, which stands opposite to our own old quarters."
The Empty House
Camden House was a real address, but because the change of street names from York Street to Baker Street and house renumbering, it is hotly contested as to which number was opposite Camden House. Also the directions to get to the property contradict.
Others have suggested many different houses in Baker Street, but most agree that the house was on the west side, even though Watson‘s description of the direction of the sunlight in one story contradicts this. Some have argued against certain locations as descriptions of a journey undertaken in a cab would be absurd as it would only be a matter of a few yards. While one author has suggested it was even Gloucester Place.
However, none exactly fit the description, and whether Doyle had a particular house in mind remains unsolved. Unlike most of his problems.
Many fans, authors and amateur detective have scoured the books and walked the streets and alleys trying to confirm the description given in The Empty House, the story which followed the adventures of Holmes three years after his supposed death at the hands of Moriarty. Holmes and Watson walked through the streets of London to a property where Holmes asked,
"Do you know where we are?" he whispered.
"Surely that is Baker Street," I answered, staring through the dim window.
"Exactly. We are in Camden House, which stands opposite to our own old quarters."
The Empty House
Camden House was a real address, but because the change of street names from York Street to Baker Street and house renumbering, it is hotly contested as to which number was opposite Camden House. Also the directions to get to the property contradict.
Others have suggested many different houses in Baker Street, but most agree that the house was on the west side, even though Watson‘s description of the direction of the sunlight in one story contradicts this. Some have argued against certain locations as descriptions of a journey undertaken in a cab would be absurd as it would only be a matter of a few yards. While one author has suggested it was even Gloucester Place.
However, none exactly fit the description, and whether Doyle had a particular house in mind remains unsolved. Unlike most of his problems.
Newton's Apple Tree
Is Newton's famous apple tree still growing?
On January 4th 2010, Google celebrated the birth of the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton with a special logo of an apple dropping from a tree, recreating the event which it is said was the inspiration for him to develop his theory of gravity. Is the tree or its descendants still growing today?
The apple tree is said to have stood in the grounds of his family home at Woolsthorpe Manor, Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire. The property is now owned by the National Trust and they invite visitors to see "the apple tree that inspired Newton to discover gravity", and that the tree was "a rare variety Flower of Kent, [it] fell over in 1820 but is still growing well having rooted where the trunk touched the ground." nationaltrust.org.uk
On January 4th 2010, Google celebrated the birth of the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton with a special logo of an apple dropping from a tree, recreating the event which it is said was the inspiration for him to develop his theory of gravity. Is the tree or its descendants still growing today?
The apple tree is said to have stood in the grounds of his family home at Woolsthorpe Manor, Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire. The property is now owned by the National Trust and they invite visitors to see "the apple tree that inspired Newton to discover gravity", and that the tree was "a rare variety Flower of Kent, [it] fell over in 1820 but is still growing well having rooted where the trunk touched the ground." nationaltrust.org.uk
However, this it contradicted by Sir David Brewster, in his Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton. In a footnote he writes,
"We saw the apple-tree in 1814, and brought away a portion of one of its roots. The tree was so much decayed that it was taken down in 1820, and the wood of it carefully preserved by Mr. Tumor of Stoke Rocheford.
Tumor is probably a mistake and should be Turnor. Edmond Turnor acquired the property from Newton and it remained in the family's possession until 1942.
The situation is further confused by the following accounts:
In 1939 The Times newspaper reported that the Lord Mayor of London on a official visit to Canada, presented Stanley Park, Vancouver, with plants of ivy and soil from Woolsthorpe Manor. The ivy was chosen because "there exists no authentic scion of the apple tree in the Orchard at Woolsthorpe, though there is one in the neighbourhood." [1]
In 1942 when the Turnor's disposed of the property, a different story was told to visitors to the property. The Times newspaper reported that they were told that the "old, recumbent apple tree" in the garden was "descended by direct grafting from that which Newton saw." [2]
While in 1943 when it was transferred to the guardianship of the National Trust, The Times reported that the orchard contained "a direct descendant of the famous tree". [3]
There is a apple tree at Trinity College, Cambridge, and also a tree at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, both of which are reported to be a descendants of the tree that inspired Newton for they were taken from the still existing tree at Woolsthorpe. But if the above research is correct, the descent is questionable.
I could find no information supporting the claim made by Wikipedia that the original tree was taken to The King's School, Grantham.
There are now many other 'descendants' of tree across the world originating from the present Woolsthorpe tree.
[1] The Times, Friday, August 21 1936
[2] The Times, Tuesday, December 01 1942
[3] The Times, Wednesday, June 09 1943
"We saw the apple-tree in 1814, and brought away a portion of one of its roots. The tree was so much decayed that it was taken down in 1820, and the wood of it carefully preserved by Mr. Tumor of Stoke Rocheford.
Tumor is probably a mistake and should be Turnor. Edmond Turnor acquired the property from Newton and it remained in the family's possession until 1942.
The situation is further confused by the following accounts:
In 1939 The Times newspaper reported that the Lord Mayor of London on a official visit to Canada, presented Stanley Park, Vancouver, with plants of ivy and soil from Woolsthorpe Manor. The ivy was chosen because "there exists no authentic scion of the apple tree in the Orchard at Woolsthorpe, though there is one in the neighbourhood." [1]
In 1942 when the Turnor's disposed of the property, a different story was told to visitors to the property. The Times newspaper reported that they were told that the "old, recumbent apple tree" in the garden was "descended by direct grafting from that which Newton saw." [2]
While in 1943 when it was transferred to the guardianship of the National Trust, The Times reported that the orchard contained "a direct descendant of the famous tree". [3]
There is a apple tree at Trinity College, Cambridge, and also a tree at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, both of which are reported to be a descendants of the tree that inspired Newton for they were taken from the still existing tree at Woolsthorpe. But if the above research is correct, the descent is questionable.
I could find no information supporting the claim made by Wikipedia that the original tree was taken to The King's School, Grantham.
There are now many other 'descendants' of tree across the world originating from the present Woolsthorpe tree.
[1] The Times, Friday, August 21 1936
[2] The Times, Tuesday, December 01 1942
[3] The Times, Wednesday, June 09 1943
How many signatures by Shakespeare are there?
Probably the most valuable signature in the world.
Some of you may have seen the film Shakespeare in Love, starring Joseph Fiennes and Gwyneth Paltrow. In one of the early scenes we see William Shakespeare, the great English playwright and poet, practising his signature in different styles and then throwing them away. This makes jest of just one of the problems associated with Shakespeare. What did his handwriting and signature look like?
At present there are 6 known signatures of Shakespeare. There are scores of forgeries, and many unrecognised claims for examples of his handwriting. There has been considerable research, debate and speculation by scholars, and some have even suggested that some of the 6 signatures are those of law clerks.
Some of you may have seen the film Shakespeare in Love, starring Joseph Fiennes and Gwyneth Paltrow. In one of the early scenes we see William Shakespeare, the great English playwright and poet, practising his signature in different styles and then throwing them away. This makes jest of just one of the problems associated with Shakespeare. What did his handwriting and signature look like?
At present there are 6 known signatures of Shakespeare. There are scores of forgeries, and many unrecognised claims for examples of his handwriting. There has been considerable research, debate and speculation by scholars, and some have even suggested that some of the 6 signatures are those of law clerks.
Scholars have trawled court, parish, church records, and private collections of books and manuscripts, and have detailed every occurrence of Shakespeare's name, and where possible, tried to identify his signature. What they have found is an astonishing number of variations as to how his first and last name were spelt in documents ranging from a birth register to a list of tax-defaulters. These are just a few examples: Willielmum Shakespeare, William Shakspere, Wm. Shackespere, Wm. Shackespere, and Wyllyam Shaxspere.
Most scholars agree that in Elizabethan England there was no standardisation for spelling, and these differences are acceptable and do refer to the same person. Also on many legal documents, names were shortened. The 6 known signatures also have variations, not only in spelling, but also in style, and they have created much discussion among scholars. So where are these 6 signatures to be found?
Document 1
Belott v. Mountjoy was a lawsuit heard at the Court of Requests in Westminster, London in May 1612. Shakespeare was called as a witness and his signature appears on a deposition. This signature was discovered by Charles William Wallace, an American scholar and researcher, while he was researching the history of the English theatre.
Most scholars agree that in Elizabethan England there was no standardisation for spelling, and these differences are acceptable and do refer to the same person. Also on many legal documents, names were shortened. The 6 known signatures also have variations, not only in spelling, but also in style, and they have created much discussion among scholars. So where are these 6 signatures to be found?
Document 1
Belott v. Mountjoy was a lawsuit heard at the Court of Requests in Westminster, London in May 1612. Shakespeare was called as a witness and his signature appears on a deposition. This signature was discovered by Charles William Wallace, an American scholar and researcher, while he was researching the history of the English theatre.
The Lungs of London
Who coined this well known phrase?
The 'Lungs of London' are said to be the many parks and squares in London, and it conveys the idea of their importance to the well-being of its inhabitants. It was first attributed to William Pitt (1708 – 1778) the Earl of Chatham, by Lord Windham in a speech in the House of Commons on 30 June 1808, during a debate on encroachment of buildings upon Hyde Park.
Windham said "It was a saying of Lord Chatham, that the parks were the lungs of London…"
Cobbett's Parliamentary Debates Vol.11
When first said by Pitt in the 18th century, London was on the brink of a rapid expansion which would gobble-up the villages, commons and fields which surrounded the city. However, it is fortunate that large areas of green space were already Royal Parks and their importance to the health and well-being of the city's inhabitants was recognised.
The 'Lungs of London' are said to be the many parks and squares in London, and it conveys the idea of their importance to the well-being of its inhabitants. It was first attributed to William Pitt (1708 – 1778) the Earl of Chatham, by Lord Windham in a speech in the House of Commons on 30 June 1808, during a debate on encroachment of buildings upon Hyde Park.
Windham said "It was a saying of Lord Chatham, that the parks were the lungs of London…"
Cobbett's Parliamentary Debates Vol.11
When first said by Pitt in the 18th century, London was on the brink of a rapid expansion which would gobble-up the villages, commons and fields which surrounded the city. However, it is fortunate that large areas of green space were already Royal Parks and their importance to the health and well-being of the city's inhabitants was recognised.
At this time the main parks being threatened by the western expansion of the city were Hyde Park, Green Park and St. James's Park. These parks were used for recreation, entertainments, horse riding, and as place to be seen when out walking. They can be seen on this map from 1800 - motoco.com.
During the 19th century, writers, campaigners and politicians found this phrase very useful when championing for inclusion of parks in the planning and building of London and saving green spaces from the developers' grasp.
As the city grew, thankfully many more parks were created including Regents Park, Finsbury Park, Battersea Park and Victoria Park to name a few, and tree-lined squares were incorporated into building developments.
The phrase is now used for almost any city: 'Lungs of Paris', 'Lungs of New York', and there may even be an earlier use of the term still to be found.
During the 19th century, writers, campaigners and politicians found this phrase very useful when championing for inclusion of parks in the planning and building of London and saving green spaces from the developers' grasp.
As the city grew, thankfully many more parks were created including Regents Park, Finsbury Park, Battersea Park and Victoria Park to name a few, and tree-lined squares were incorporated into building developments.
The phrase is now used for almost any city: 'Lungs of Paris', 'Lungs of New York', and there may even be an earlier use of the term still to be found.
Why are there Welsh street names in Patagonia?
A little known story of emigration.
A connection between Argentina and Wales on an initial glance seems unlikely, but a closer looks reveals the existence of a small number of people living in Argentina who have Welsh born ancestors. They are the descendants of a Welsh colony founded in 1865 in the Chubut river valley in the Patagonian region of Argentina.
Following its independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina's population remained stable until the government realised that population growth would help the country grow financially. The government decided to invite European immigrants from Spain, Italy, Russia, Germany, Poland, and Britain. They offered them land in the Patagonia region which at that time was still largely unexplored.
A connection between Argentina and Wales on an initial glance seems unlikely, but a closer looks reveals the existence of a small number of people living in Argentina who have Welsh born ancestors. They are the descendants of a Welsh colony founded in 1865 in the Chubut river valley in the Patagonian region of Argentina.
Following its independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina's population remained stable until the government realised that population growth would help the country grow financially. The government decided to invite European immigrants from Spain, Italy, Russia, Germany, Poland, and Britain. They offered them land in the Patagonia region which at that time was still largely unexplored.
For some in Wales this opportunity to emigrate offered a chance to maintain their own unique Welsh language and culture. Both of which had been subject to interference by the English and were steadily dying out in parts of Wales. The supporters of the idea of creating a new colony wanted to create their own traditional and unchanging 'little Wales'.
After negotiations between the Argentinean government and the organisers of the proposed colony, in 1865 the ship Mimosa sailed to Argentina with a little over a hundred men women and children on board. They made their way with some difficulty to the Chubut area where they then established their colony. The landscape and environment was a little different to what they had been told it would be like and they faced many life-threatening challenges.
However, through hard work and successful irrigation of the area, rich, fertile wheat fields were established, and in 1886 further settlers from Wales arrived. At the turn of the century a number of factors prompted some of the Welsh colonists to move on to Canada, but many remained and their decedents still live in Argentina today and are bilingual in Welsh and Spanish. Other links to the past are found in the street names in the area (Google Maps). They feature Welsh names such as Davies, Jones, Roberts, Williams and Lewis.
After negotiations between the Argentinean government and the organisers of the proposed colony, in 1865 the ship Mimosa sailed to Argentina with a little over a hundred men women and children on board. They made their way with some difficulty to the Chubut area where they then established their colony. The landscape and environment was a little different to what they had been told it would be like and they faced many life-threatening challenges.
However, through hard work and successful irrigation of the area, rich, fertile wheat fields were established, and in 1886 further settlers from Wales arrived. At the turn of the century a number of factors prompted some of the Welsh colonists to move on to Canada, but many remained and their decedents still live in Argentina today and are bilingual in Welsh and Spanish. Other links to the past are found in the street names in the area (Google Maps). They feature Welsh names such as Davies, Jones, Roberts, Williams and Lewis.
The first General Assembly of the United Nations
The historic first General Assembly was held in London.
The United Nations came into being on 24 October 1945 when the Charter of the United Nations was ratified by the five country members of the Security Council. It was not until the following year on 10 January 1946 that the General Assembly of the United Nations, representing 51 nations, met for the first time as a working organisation at Central Hall, Westminster, in London.
The venue for this historic event was a Methodist church. Its full title is the Methodist Central Hall and is located just across the road from the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and a short distance from Downing Street.
The hall was built in 1912 to commemorate the death of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. Finance for the building of the hall was raised by the Wesleyan Methodist Twentieth Century Fund which started in 1898 with the aim of raising a million guineas to fund the promotion of Methodism. By 1904 the fund had achieved its target. One quarter of the money raised went towards building the hall.
The United Nations came into being on 24 October 1945 when the Charter of the United Nations was ratified by the five country members of the Security Council. It was not until the following year on 10 January 1946 that the General Assembly of the United Nations, representing 51 nations, met for the first time as a working organisation at Central Hall, Westminster, in London.
The venue for this historic event was a Methodist church. Its full title is the Methodist Central Hall and is located just across the road from the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and a short distance from Downing Street.
The hall was built in 1912 to commemorate the death of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. Finance for the building of the hall was raised by the Wesleyan Methodist Twentieth Century Fund which started in 1898 with the aim of raising a million guineas to fund the promotion of Methodism. By 1904 the fund had achieved its target. One quarter of the money raised went towards building the hall.
It was intended that the hall would not only serve as a church, but also as the venue of conferences and lectures on "religious, educational, scientific, philanthropic and social questions".
The architecture of the building, in line with the philosophy of the Methodist movement, does not appear like a church. There is no cross, stained glass, or other religious symbols on the outside, and under the dome, the impressive Great Hall with seating for up to 2,352 people, is designed for preaching and oration.
It is here in the Great Hall that the UN delegates sat. The hall was specially decorated in blue and gold, and flags of all the participating nations lining the walls. The large organ and choir seating at one end of the hall was screened with a deep blue pleated curtain, the UN symbol, and some of the seating removed or reupholstered.
In 1951, the United Nations opened its headquarters in New York City and a permanent home was found for meetings of the General Assembly.
The architecture of the building, in line with the philosophy of the Methodist movement, does not appear like a church. There is no cross, stained glass, or other religious symbols on the outside, and under the dome, the impressive Great Hall with seating for up to 2,352 people, is designed for preaching and oration.
It is here in the Great Hall that the UN delegates sat. The hall was specially decorated in blue and gold, and flags of all the participating nations lining the walls. The large organ and choir seating at one end of the hall was screened with a deep blue pleated curtain, the UN symbol, and some of the seating removed or reupholstered.
In 1951, the United Nations opened its headquarters in New York City and a permanent home was found for meetings of the General Assembly.
Stoolball
The history of the game of Stoolball.
Stoolball is a bat and ball game now played mainly in the counties of Sussex, Kent and Surrey. It has its origins from at least the 15th century and some argue that cricket is derived from stoolball. It is game for both sexes: both adults and older children. Played outside on the village green during the long summer evenings, as former Sussex inhabitant I remember with great fondness partaking in a game of stoolball.
Like cricket it has eleven players-a-side who play in much the same positions. The wickets are a square board of wood on top of a wooden post or stake. The batter defends the board with a bat shaped rather like an elongated table tennis bat and made of willow. The wickets are sixteen yards apart. The bowler, and this is what make the game so suitable for all, can only bowl underarm to try and to hit the wicket. The batsman meanwhile has to try and hit the ball and score runs by running between the wickets. There are eight balls an over.
The pitch is smaller than cricket - 90 yards diameter - and does not have to be level, which harks back to its earliest origins when in the 15th century there were complaints of the game being played in churchyards after Sunday service. The origins of the game, and indeed its name, comes from placing milking stools on the ground and defending them with a hand. The stools were also suspended from trees.
Down in a vale on a summer's day
All the lads and lasses met to be merry,
A match for kisses at stool-ball to play,
And for cakes, and ale, and cider and perry.
Song from 1694
In the following centuries the rules were formalised and the stools replaced with the wickets mounted on posts or stakes. There was a great revival during the First World War when the game was thought suitable for the recuperating wounded soldiers and even a match was placed at Lord's, the home of cricket, in 1917.
Stoolball is a bat and ball game now played mainly in the counties of Sussex, Kent and Surrey. It has its origins from at least the 15th century and some argue that cricket is derived from stoolball. It is game for both sexes: both adults and older children. Played outside on the village green during the long summer evenings, as former Sussex inhabitant I remember with great fondness partaking in a game of stoolball.
Like cricket it has eleven players-a-side who play in much the same positions. The wickets are a square board of wood on top of a wooden post or stake. The batter defends the board with a bat shaped rather like an elongated table tennis bat and made of willow. The wickets are sixteen yards apart. The bowler, and this is what make the game so suitable for all, can only bowl underarm to try and to hit the wicket. The batsman meanwhile has to try and hit the ball and score runs by running between the wickets. There are eight balls an over.
The pitch is smaller than cricket - 90 yards diameter - and does not have to be level, which harks back to its earliest origins when in the 15th century there were complaints of the game being played in churchyards after Sunday service. The origins of the game, and indeed its name, comes from placing milking stools on the ground and defending them with a hand. The stools were also suspended from trees.
Down in a vale on a summer's day
All the lads and lasses met to be merry,
A match for kisses at stool-ball to play,
And for cakes, and ale, and cider and perry.
Song from 1694
In the following centuries the rules were formalised and the stools replaced with the wickets mounted on posts or stakes. There was a great revival during the First World War when the game was thought suitable for the recuperating wounded soldiers and even a match was placed at Lord's, the home of cricket, in 1917.
Lacock and Lacock Abbey
Why the historic village of Lacock is so popular with film makers.
The Harry Potter films, Pride and Prejudice, Moll Flanders, Larkrise to Candleford, Cranford, Moonraker, and Emma, are among the films and television historical dramas that have been filmed at the Wiltshire village of Lacock and the nearby Lacock Abbey.
The village is almost entirely owned by the National Trust and there has been little new building in the village since the late 19th century. The village is delightfully picturesque and contains many historic buildings, few of which have been altered on their exterior since they were built. They include a medieval church, a tithe barn, 15th century pubs, and houses built in various styles with wood, Costwold stone and brick. Over 200 buildings are listed as protected. The village was founded and built around the wool trade and there are many houses which display the wealth of the inhabitants.
The Harry Potter films, Pride and Prejudice, Moll Flanders, Larkrise to Candleford, Cranford, Moonraker, and Emma, are among the films and television historical dramas that have been filmed at the Wiltshire village of Lacock and the nearby Lacock Abbey.
The village is almost entirely owned by the National Trust and there has been little new building in the village since the late 19th century. The village is delightfully picturesque and contains many historic buildings, few of which have been altered on their exterior since they were built. They include a medieval church, a tithe barn, 15th century pubs, and houses built in various styles with wood, Costwold stone and brick. Over 200 buildings are listed as protected. The village was founded and built around the wool trade and there are many houses which display the wealth of the inhabitants.
The streets are laid out in a square so this makes it easy to explore. There are few street lights and if you can blank out the residents cars, it is easy to imagine what the street may have looked like in past centuries. That's why it is so popular with film makers: dress the actors up in period costume, cover up 21st century signs, put down some earth to cover the tarmac, and you have a ready-made film set.
Take a trip around the village on Google Street view. This starts at the High Street.
Immediately to the east of the village lies Lacock Abbey used for the Harry Potter films of the Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets. Its medieval cloisters, chapter house and sacristy were used the films.
The Abbey, also owned by the National Trust, was founded in 1299 by the Augustinians. After Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries, it was converted into a country house. In the 18th century, Romantic and Gothic additions were made to the house, and it was later occupied by William Henry Fox Talbot, the photographic pioneer who invented the negative/positive process. The first negative photograph was taken here in 1839.
Lacock is now firmly established on the film buff's list of places to visit.
Take a trip around the village on Google Street view. This starts at the High Street.
Immediately to the east of the village lies Lacock Abbey used for the Harry Potter films of the Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets. Its medieval cloisters, chapter house and sacristy were used the films.
The Abbey, also owned by the National Trust, was founded in 1299 by the Augustinians. After Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries, it was converted into a country house. In the 18th century, Romantic and Gothic additions were made to the house, and it was later occupied by William Henry Fox Talbot, the photographic pioneer who invented the negative/positive process. The first negative photograph was taken here in 1839.
Lacock is now firmly established on the film buff's list of places to visit.
Is there an Empress, Princess, Duchess, Countess or Lady on your roof?
The historic titled names given to slate tiles.
Empress, Princess, Duchess, Countess and Lady are all traditional names given to various sizes of Welsh slate used for roofing. It is not known when these terms came into use.
Slate comes in many varieties of colour and composition and is named after the area in which it is quarried or mined. During the Industrial Revolution slate became a very important material for use in the building industry and the construction of railways in the mountainous area of North Wales meant that Welsh slate could be easily transported to customers. Across Britain millions of Victorian and Edwardian houses were roofed with slate from North Wales.
Empress, Princess, Duchess, Countess and Lady are all traditional names given to various sizes of Welsh slate used for roofing. It is not known when these terms came into use.
Slate comes in many varieties of colour and composition and is named after the area in which it is quarried or mined. During the Industrial Revolution slate became a very important material for use in the building industry and the construction of railways in the mountainous area of North Wales meant that Welsh slate could be easily transported to customers. Across Britain millions of Victorian and Edwardian houses were roofed with slate from North Wales.
The slate was cut into various sizes which were given names by the quarrymen, these included: Queen, Princess, Duchess, Marchioness, Countess, Viscountess, Wide Lady, Broad Lady, Lady, Small Lady, Narrow Lady, Header, Small Header, Double, and Single.
"By the strike of his hammer without the king's aid
A Lady or Countess or Duchess is made
Yet high is the station from which they are sent
And all their great titles are got by descent
And when they are seen in a palace or shop
Their rank they preserve and are still at the top"
Verse quoted in an article on Penrhyn Slate Quarries
in Bradshaw's journal, Volume 2 1842
At their peak of production the slate quarries of North Wales employed hundreds of men, and hundreds of tons of slate were quarried and cut into slates for roofing every day. These were then exported across the world to Ireland, America, and the British Empire.
The industry has since declined due to competition from abroad, but the North Wales quarries are still producing slate especially for restoring heritage buildings and in conservations projects.
"By the strike of his hammer without the king's aid
A Lady or Countess or Duchess is made
Yet high is the station from which they are sent
And all their great titles are got by descent
And when they are seen in a palace or shop
Their rank they preserve and are still at the top"
Verse quoted in an article on Penrhyn Slate Quarries
in Bradshaw's journal, Volume 2 1842
At their peak of production the slate quarries of North Wales employed hundreds of men, and hundreds of tons of slate were quarried and cut into slates for roofing every day. These were then exported across the world to Ireland, America, and the British Empire.
The industry has since declined due to competition from abroad, but the North Wales quarries are still producing slate especially for restoring heritage buildings and in conservations projects.
Execution Dock
Paying the price for murder and piracy on the high seas.
Under the English legal system the Admiralty Court dealt with all crimes committed on the high seas. For at least 500 years Execution Dock was where its capital sentences were carried out. So that it was within the court's jurisdiction, the gallows were located at below the high-water mark on the River Thames in London.
It also served as a visible reminder to passing ship's crews, for the bodies were left for three days, visible or immersed as the tide rose and fell. Some were then transferred and placed in an iron cage and hung in chains at Bugsby's Hole at Blackwall.
Under the English legal system the Admiralty Court dealt with all crimes committed on the high seas. For at least 500 years Execution Dock was where its capital sentences were carried out. So that it was within the court's jurisdiction, the gallows were located at below the high-water mark on the River Thames in London.
It also served as a visible reminder to passing ship's crews, for the bodies were left for three days, visible or immersed as the tide rose and fell. Some were then transferred and placed in an iron cage and hung in chains at Bugsby's Hole at Blackwall.
One of the most famous pirates, Captain Kidd, was hung at Execution Dock, while other pirates included some of Blackbeard's crew.
In later centuries, the bodies where not left, but would be taken down and taken away for dissection by surgeons.
The last execution took place in 1830. George John Davis and William Watts became the last men to executed for piracy in Britain.
The exact location of the gallows is disputed, but some sources state that it was opposite the former warehouse shown in the picture above. Note the letter ‘E’.
In later centuries, the bodies where not left, but would be taken down and taken away for dissection by surgeons.
The last execution took place in 1830. George John Davis and William Watts became the last men to executed for piracy in Britain.
The exact location of the gallows is disputed, but some sources state that it was opposite the former warehouse shown in the picture above. Note the letter ‘E’.
Queen Victoria's rat catcher
Even Buckingham Palace had rats.
Londoner Jack Black was the self-described "rat and mole destroyer to Her Majesty".
In 1851 Henry Mayhew published London Labour and the London Poor, a ground-breaking examination of the condition and lives of London's poor. Mayhew carried out interviews of the people he came across and in volume III he wrote of the lives of the 'Street-Folk'. One of these was Jack Black, professional rat catcher to Her Majesty Queen Victoria.
Not only did Black destroy the vermin, but he supplied the demand for live rats for use in ratting competitions held in many taverns where terriers fought live rats while their masters bet on their prowess at killing rats.
Londoner Jack Black was the self-described "rat and mole destroyer to Her Majesty".
In 1851 Henry Mayhew published London Labour and the London Poor, a ground-breaking examination of the condition and lives of London's poor. Mayhew carried out interviews of the people he came across and in volume III he wrote of the lives of the 'Street-Folk'. One of these was Jack Black, professional rat catcher to Her Majesty Queen Victoria.
Not only did Black destroy the vermin, but he supplied the demand for live rats for use in ratting competitions held in many taverns where terriers fought live rats while their masters bet on their prowess at killing rats.
Black was reported to be "the most fearless handler of rats of any man living", and Mayhew witnessed it himself when at a public display Black placed half a dozen rats taken directly from the sewers inside his shirt while delivering a sales pitch on the rapid effects of rat poison. That he could have been easily bitten on this occasion was proved by the numerous scars on his face and hands, and on his own account that he had been on death's door three times through rat bites.
He told Mayhew that he had started catching rats at the age 9, and by the early 1840s he was rat catcher for various Government Departments in London which included the Royal Palaces occupied by the Queen.
To advertise his business, he would take to exhibiting in the streets and would wear a costume of white leather breeches, a green coat and scarlet waistcoat, and a gold band round the hat, with a belt across his shoulder.
The interview covers several pages and is an interesting trip into a very different life and time from today.
He told Mayhew that he had started catching rats at the age 9, and by the early 1840s he was rat catcher for various Government Departments in London which included the Royal Palaces occupied by the Queen.
To advertise his business, he would take to exhibiting in the streets and would wear a costume of white leather breeches, a green coat and scarlet waistcoat, and a gold band round the hat, with a belt across his shoulder.
The interview covers several pages and is an interesting trip into a very different life and time from today.
Mapping Tudor London
A look at the Agas map of 1560.
One of the earliest detailed maps of London is the Agas Map. At 6ft by 3ft it is a detailed panoramic view of London published c.1560. Entitled Civitas Londinum, the original has not survived, but there are three surviving copies of the map which were all published in 1633. One of these is held in the Guildhall Library, London.
The map shows London in great detail. The crowded city between the river and Cornhill, Cheapside and Newgate Street. Whitechapel with just a few houses, the Tower of London surrounded by a moat and, unlike today, filled with water. Surrounding the city are pastures and fields, dotted with cows and the occasional windmill. London Bridge is the only bridge across the Thames. The roman London Wall guards the city. St Giles is just a village, Westminster a small town, and in the Strand, houses for the well-to-do with gardens reaching down to the river.
The map shows a little of London life. Bull baiting, bear baiting, water taxis plying between the City and Westminster, trading vessels in the docks, artillery on the riverside by the Tower, women drying sheets on the fields at Moorgate.
One of the earliest detailed maps of London is the Agas Map. At 6ft by 3ft it is a detailed panoramic view of London published c.1560. Entitled Civitas Londinum, the original has not survived, but there are three surviving copies of the map which were all published in 1633. One of these is held in the Guildhall Library, London.
The map shows London in great detail. The crowded city between the river and Cornhill, Cheapside and Newgate Street. Whitechapel with just a few houses, the Tower of London surrounded by a moat and, unlike today, filled with water. Surrounding the city are pastures and fields, dotted with cows and the occasional windmill. London Bridge is the only bridge across the Thames. The roman London Wall guards the city. St Giles is just a village, Westminster a small town, and in the Strand, houses for the well-to-do with gardens reaching down to the river.
The map shows a little of London life. Bull baiting, bear baiting, water taxis plying between the City and Westminster, trading vessels in the docks, artillery on the riverside by the Tower, women drying sheets on the fields at Moorgate.
So, for a fascinating tour through Elizabethan London go to the University of Victoria. This website has two ways to view the map. The first is through the navigation tabs at the top of the page. Click on Map. Then click a section of the map to view. Each section of the map has notable places marked. Click on these and a more detailed description is shown. Or you can go to the detailed index of the streets, churches, sites, wards, and people, with information on each topic and a link to the relevant section of the map.
The second way is their new experimental map which has layers of information which you can manipulate. A far better quality image is gained when you zoom at 100% than of the map mentioned above.
The map is also a useful guide when reading A Survey of London by John Stow, written in 1598.
The second way is their new experimental map which has layers of information which you can manipulate. A far better quality image is gained when you zoom at 100% than of the map mentioned above.
The map is also a useful guide when reading A Survey of London by John Stow, written in 1598.
Where did the name 'Jack the Ripper' come from?
The origin of the murderer's nickname.
The murders of six prostitutes in London's east end between August and November 1888 are known to everyone as the 'Jack the Ripper' murders. Each of the women was brutally attacked, murdered, and some had their bodies mutilated. The murders were committed within a small area of streets and alleys.
The failure of the police to catch the murderer and the brutality of the murders created alarm in the general public. This was fuelled by the newspaper coverage of the time.
But where did the name 'Jack the Ripper' come from? On 27 September 1888, the Central News Agency received a letter written in red ink addressed to "Dear boss". The writer boasted of their exploits in the murders. It was signed 'Jack the Ripper' with a postscript of "Don't mind me giving the trade name".
The murders of six prostitutes in London's east end between August and November 1888 are known to everyone as the 'Jack the Ripper' murders. Each of the women was brutally attacked, murdered, and some had their bodies mutilated. The murders were committed within a small area of streets and alleys.
The failure of the police to catch the murderer and the brutality of the murders created alarm in the general public. This was fuelled by the newspaper coverage of the time.
But where did the name 'Jack the Ripper' come from? On 27 September 1888, the Central News Agency received a letter written in red ink addressed to "Dear boss". The writer boasted of their exploits in the murders. It was signed 'Jack the Ripper' with a postscript of "Don't mind me giving the trade name".
This was followed up by a postcard on 1 October, again sent to the Central News Agency making reference to the earlier letter. Again signed 'Jack the Ripper'.
At first it was thought they were practical jokes, but reference in one letter to cutting off ears and the posting of the letters within a short time of the latest murder suggested to the police the letters could have been written by the murderer. Their contents were revealed to the newspapers in the hope that the public would respond with information. This resulted in wide publicity of the contents of letters and the name 'Jack the Ripper' became immediately infamous.
Within days the phrase 'Jack the Ripper' was in use in popular speech, even used by children in their games, and the newspapers found it a useful label when referring to the murders, or even later murders which were equally brutal but unconnected with the original East End murders.
For the next months and even years the police received hundreds of letters and postcards signed 'Jack the Ripper', and graffiti was found on walls signed in the same name.
There is now a fascination with everything 'Jack the Ripper', and despite the fact that it is thought the two letters were indeed hoaxes, framed facsimiles of the letters can be purchased.
At first it was thought they were practical jokes, but reference in one letter to cutting off ears and the posting of the letters within a short time of the latest murder suggested to the police the letters could have been written by the murderer. Their contents were revealed to the newspapers in the hope that the public would respond with information. This resulted in wide publicity of the contents of letters and the name 'Jack the Ripper' became immediately infamous.
Within days the phrase 'Jack the Ripper' was in use in popular speech, even used by children in their games, and the newspapers found it a useful label when referring to the murders, or even later murders which were equally brutal but unconnected with the original East End murders.
For the next months and even years the police received hundreds of letters and postcards signed 'Jack the Ripper', and graffiti was found on walls signed in the same name.
There is now a fascination with everything 'Jack the Ripper', and despite the fact that it is thought the two letters were indeed hoaxes, framed facsimiles of the letters can be purchased.
The greatest ice skating tragedy in Britain
The sad story of a tragic accident in Regents Park.
In 1867 Regents Park in London encompassed a zoo, a range of gardens, avenues for riding, and an ornamental lake with an area for boating. In very cold winters when the lake froze over it became a popular venue for skaters.
The beginning of January 1867 was intensely cold throughout Britain and skaters everywhere enjoyed themselves on the frozen lakes and rivers.
In Regents Park on the day of the 14th, The Times newspaper reported that during the day, hundreds of people had been skating on the lake. During the afternoon, the Skating Club members acting as stewards known as 'icemen' had to rescue 21 people who had fallen in after the ice cracked. One person was recovered unconscious, but was revived a few minutes later.
In 1867 Regents Park in London encompassed a zoo, a range of gardens, avenues for riding, and an ornamental lake with an area for boating. In very cold winters when the lake froze over it became a popular venue for skaters.
The beginning of January 1867 was intensely cold throughout Britain and skaters everywhere enjoyed themselves on the frozen lakes and rivers.
In Regents Park on the day of the 14th, The Times newspaper reported that during the day, hundreds of people had been skating on the lake. During the afternoon, the Skating Club members acting as stewards known as 'icemen' had to rescue 21 people who had fallen in after the ice cracked. One person was recovered unconscious, but was revived a few minutes later.
This did not deter the skaters who returned in their hundreds the following day on the 15th. That afternoon it was widely estimated that between 150 and 300 were skating on the ice. Accounts differ on what exactly happened and whether there was advance warning that the ice was unstable and about to break, but the ice began cracking and then broke into fragments. The skaters began to tumble into the water which was at least 12 feet deep.
Icemen, skating club members, park keepers and spectators struggled to rescue the victims, but it was clear that a great tragedy was unfolding. Many skaters plunged to the bottom of the lake as their skates prevented them from swimming, while others clung onto the ice, screaming for help. Spectators likewise called out and pleaded for assistance to save their loved ones.
Many acts of individual heroism took place as many skaters were saved from drowning. Police and doctors living nearby dashed to the lake, and the rescued were taken off to their homes, hospital, or nearby workhouses. But then came the task of recovery and identification of the bodies which took several days.
At the inquest, evidence was heard into the sad deaths of 40 people, mainly young men and women, and children.
To prevent any further repeat of the tragedy, the lake was drained, the mud removed and replaced with soil. The water level would now be 4 feet deep.
Source: various editions of The Times, January 1867.
Icemen, skating club members, park keepers and spectators struggled to rescue the victims, but it was clear that a great tragedy was unfolding. Many skaters plunged to the bottom of the lake as their skates prevented them from swimming, while others clung onto the ice, screaming for help. Spectators likewise called out and pleaded for assistance to save their loved ones.
Many acts of individual heroism took place as many skaters were saved from drowning. Police and doctors living nearby dashed to the lake, and the rescued were taken off to their homes, hospital, or nearby workhouses. But then came the task of recovery and identification of the bodies which took several days.
At the inquest, evidence was heard into the sad deaths of 40 people, mainly young men and women, and children.
To prevent any further repeat of the tragedy, the lake was drained, the mud removed and replaced with soil. The water level would now be 4 feet deep.
Source: various editions of The Times, January 1867.
What would you find in Madame Tussaud's in the 19th century?
A look at the famous waxworks in London.
Madame Tussaud's in London, is world-famous for its waxworks of politicians, movie stars, musicians, television celebrities, and sports stars. But what would you have seen in their exhibitions in the 19th century?
Madame Marie Tussaud came to Britain from France in 1802 and travelled around the country with her exhibition of effigies of royalty and revolutionaries involved in the French Revolution, with paintings and other exhibits to accompany them. After her death in 1850, her family took over the business.
As the collection expanded it came to be seen as an exhibition of current events, both in Britain and abroad, with figures of leading statesmen and politicians, royalty, and in the Chamber of Horrors, murderers and other notorious criminals. Today we forget that in the absence of television and images dominating the news media, apart from drawings in newspapers, this was the only opportunity for most people see what famous people looked like.
Madame Tussaud's in London, is world-famous for its waxworks of politicians, movie stars, musicians, television celebrities, and sports stars. But what would you have seen in their exhibitions in the 19th century?
Madame Marie Tussaud came to Britain from France in 1802 and travelled around the country with her exhibition of effigies of royalty and revolutionaries involved in the French Revolution, with paintings and other exhibits to accompany them. After her death in 1850, her family took over the business.
As the collection expanded it came to be seen as an exhibition of current events, both in Britain and abroad, with figures of leading statesmen and politicians, royalty, and in the Chamber of Horrors, murderers and other notorious criminals. Today we forget that in the absence of television and images dominating the news media, apart from drawings in newspapers, this was the only opportunity for most people see what famous people looked like.
For the cost of six-pence admission in 1867, in a walk around Tussaud's in the Baker Street Bazaar you would see the effigies of the royalty of Europe and politicians, both historical and present day, including Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and other members of the Royal family; Alexander Emperor of Russia, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, Garibaldi, Count Bismarck, and Presidents Lincoln and Johnson.
There are effigies of all the Kings and Queens of England with various portraits and exhibits, and George IV resplendent in his coronation robes with copies of the monarch's regalia including the crown and sceptre, and orb.
Other subjects included the writers Voltaire, Lord Byron and Sir Walter Scott; the singer, Jenny Lind; Sarah Siddons, actress; Ivan Loushkin, a Russian known for his height of 8 feet 5 inches; and Giuseppe Fieschi who tried to murder King Louis-Philippe of France with a twenty gun barrelled machine.
In another part of the exhibition there are effigies and relics of the lives of Duke of Wellington, Lord Nelson and Napoleon Bonaparte, including furniture, clothing and portraits.
In the Chamber Of Horrors, which incidentally was the name given to it by Punch Magazine, you would find portraits and exhibits about notorious and sensational murderers including Frederick Manning and his wife Marian Manning - they murdered her lover; Martin Dumollard and his wife - they murdered young girls and sold their clothes and jewellery; James Greenacre and Sarah Gale - he murdered his lover, and aided by Gale, cut up the body; and Burke and Hare, the famous body snatchers.
Also on display are the death masks of people made after they had been guillotined, and a knife and lunette (part of a guillotine) used during the execution of over 22,000 people during the French Revolution; and effigies of Edward Oxford and John Francis who tried to assassinate Queen Victoria.
Not everyone found this room to their taste, as one female visitor of genteel disposition wrote "... the contemplation of these gentlemen could not be productive of anything but horror, I thought it a pity to destroy the very pleasing impression which was left by the more interesting exhibition in the large saloon, so I passed then over."
Some of the items from the French Revolution can still be seen today in Madame Tussaud's.
There are effigies of all the Kings and Queens of England with various portraits and exhibits, and George IV resplendent in his coronation robes with copies of the monarch's regalia including the crown and sceptre, and orb.
Other subjects included the writers Voltaire, Lord Byron and Sir Walter Scott; the singer, Jenny Lind; Sarah Siddons, actress; Ivan Loushkin, a Russian known for his height of 8 feet 5 inches; and Giuseppe Fieschi who tried to murder King Louis-Philippe of France with a twenty gun barrelled machine.
In another part of the exhibition there are effigies and relics of the lives of Duke of Wellington, Lord Nelson and Napoleon Bonaparte, including furniture, clothing and portraits.
In the Chamber Of Horrors, which incidentally was the name given to it by Punch Magazine, you would find portraits and exhibits about notorious and sensational murderers including Frederick Manning and his wife Marian Manning - they murdered her lover; Martin Dumollard and his wife - they murdered young girls and sold their clothes and jewellery; James Greenacre and Sarah Gale - he murdered his lover, and aided by Gale, cut up the body; and Burke and Hare, the famous body snatchers.
Also on display are the death masks of people made after they had been guillotined, and a knife and lunette (part of a guillotine) used during the execution of over 22,000 people during the French Revolution; and effigies of Edward Oxford and John Francis who tried to assassinate Queen Victoria.
Not everyone found this room to their taste, as one female visitor of genteel disposition wrote "... the contemplation of these gentlemen could not be productive of anything but horror, I thought it a pity to destroy the very pleasing impression which was left by the more interesting exhibition in the large saloon, so I passed then over."
Some of the items from the French Revolution can still be seen today in Madame Tussaud's.
The jigsaw craze
When the world went mad over the humble jigsaw puzzle.
It is generally thought that the first jigsaws were created in the mid-18th century for educational purposes. One of the first commercial jigsaws was made by John Spilsbury in 1766. Spilsbury was a geographer who designed maps in the form of a jigsaw for use as a teaching aid. One can be seen on the British Library's website. It was known as a dissected map. The word jig-saw, or jigsaw as it is now more commonly spelt, did not appear until the late 19th century after the invention of a type of saw for cutting wood known as a jig-saw, or fret-saw in Britain.
During the 19th century dissected puzzles could be found in the children's nursery, mainly for education purposes, but at the turn of the century, with its catchy new name, jigsaw puzzles became popular among the adults and by 1908 a jigsaw craze had started in the United States which quickly spread across the Atlantic to Britain, and then around the world.
It is generally thought that the first jigsaws were created in the mid-18th century for educational purposes. One of the first commercial jigsaws was made by John Spilsbury in 1766. Spilsbury was a geographer who designed maps in the form of a jigsaw for use as a teaching aid. One can be seen on the British Library's website. It was known as a dissected map. The word jig-saw, or jigsaw as it is now more commonly spelt, did not appear until the late 19th century after the invention of a type of saw for cutting wood known as a jig-saw, or fret-saw in Britain.
During the 19th century dissected puzzles could be found in the children's nursery, mainly for education purposes, but at the turn of the century, with its catchy new name, jigsaw puzzles became popular among the adults and by 1908 a jigsaw craze had started in the United States which quickly spread across the Atlantic to Britain, and then around the world.
It's not clear where the fad started, but one newspaper report said it was in Newport, and then spread to New York and Boston. Adults were sucked into the craze and it was said that society had become "slaves to its fascination". The puzzles appealed to both the young and the old, and all classes.
The puzzles were made by pasting a picture onto a piece of wood or stiff cardboard and then cutting them up into oddly shaped pieces with a jigsaw. The puzzles were cut into simple shapes without interlocking pieces. They were to come later.
Large commercially made jig-saws were expensive. A 500 piece jigsaw several feet in length would cost between $5-$10. Ideal for country-house parties where the billiard table was a perfect place to set out the jigsaw. They were also found in hotels and on ocean liners where it was thought they would even replace Bridge as a pastime. At the cheaper end of the market, enterprising women at home sought out pictures by cutting them from magazines, pasted them onto wood or cardboard, had them cut up and then sold them.
Jigsaws puzzle parties were to found in homes, social clubs and church halls. Several copies of the same puzzles were given to teams who raced to complete them. There were even Puzzle Exchanges opened where for 25c you could swap a completed puzzle for a new one providing it contain the same number of pieces.
Newspapers latched onto the craze by having jigsaw competitions. They printed a photograph cut into pieces and invited readers to cut them out, paste the completed puzzle onto a card and return it by post. Jigsaw puzzle competitions were held in shop windows with the public looking on, and manufacturers and shops gave away free jigsaws with their products.
There were picture postcards printed with perforated lines on, write on the back of the card, cut it up, and post off in an envelope to your family or friends.
The effect on socialising was noted by one gossip columnist who wrote "we've all caught the germ, and it only remained for the man who invented the puzzle picture of different coloured woods to drive us all to padded cells" [1]
Jigsaws were set to be part of family life for decades to come.
[1] Evening News 21 April 1909
The puzzles were made by pasting a picture onto a piece of wood or stiff cardboard and then cutting them up into oddly shaped pieces with a jigsaw. The puzzles were cut into simple shapes without interlocking pieces. They were to come later.
Large commercially made jig-saws were expensive. A 500 piece jigsaw several feet in length would cost between $5-$10. Ideal for country-house parties where the billiard table was a perfect place to set out the jigsaw. They were also found in hotels and on ocean liners where it was thought they would even replace Bridge as a pastime. At the cheaper end of the market, enterprising women at home sought out pictures by cutting them from magazines, pasted them onto wood or cardboard, had them cut up and then sold them.
Jigsaws puzzle parties were to found in homes, social clubs and church halls. Several copies of the same puzzles were given to teams who raced to complete them. There were even Puzzle Exchanges opened where for 25c you could swap a completed puzzle for a new one providing it contain the same number of pieces.
Newspapers latched onto the craze by having jigsaw competitions. They printed a photograph cut into pieces and invited readers to cut them out, paste the completed puzzle onto a card and return it by post. Jigsaw puzzle competitions were held in shop windows with the public looking on, and manufacturers and shops gave away free jigsaws with their products.
There were picture postcards printed with perforated lines on, write on the back of the card, cut it up, and post off in an envelope to your family or friends.
The effect on socialising was noted by one gossip columnist who wrote "we've all caught the germ, and it only remained for the man who invented the puzzle picture of different coloured woods to drive us all to padded cells" [1]
Jigsaws were set to be part of family life for decades to come.
[1] Evening News 21 April 1909
The lions in Trafalgar Square
A story of delay and financial problems.
As tourists clamber over the four lions at the base of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, few know that their creation was beset by delays and prevarication.
When planning the design of Nelson's Column, Nelson's Testimonial Committee had included four lions at the corners of the plinth. It was intended that the lions were to be in stone or granite some 20 feet long, although this idea was not met with universal agreement. John Graham Lough was to be asked to be their sculptor, but the lack of funding and artistic arguments prevented their execution at the same time as the erection of the monument which commenced in 1839.
The matter dragged on until 1846 when sufficient funds became available to commission the four bas-reliefs at the base of the column. This image shows Nelson’s Column before the lions.
As tourists clamber over the four lions at the base of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, few know that their creation was beset by delays and prevarication.
When planning the design of Nelson's Column, Nelson's Testimonial Committee had included four lions at the corners of the plinth. It was intended that the lions were to be in stone or granite some 20 feet long, although this idea was not met with universal agreement. John Graham Lough was to be asked to be their sculptor, but the lack of funding and artistic arguments prevented their execution at the same time as the erection of the monument which commenced in 1839.
The matter dragged on until 1846 when sufficient funds became available to commission the four bas-reliefs at the base of the column. This image shows Nelson’s Column before the lions.
In 1858, 12 years later, the House of Commons allocated £6000 for the completion of the lions and the intent was to invite six sculptors to submit models and for one of them to be selected. The Board of Works, however, had different intentions and they announced the appointment of Sir Edwin Landseer (1802 – 1873) to carry out the commission. This raised many an eyebrow for although Landseer was known best for his painting of animal subjects: stags, dogs, hunting scene, and was favoured by Queen Victoria who commissioned him to paint her and her family, his skill and knowledge of sculpture was questionable. The Times wrote that while acknowledging his skill at painting, it observed that "Sir Edwin never had a chisel in his hand in his life, and never yet, we believe, attempted to model anything."
There were then further delays caused by Landseer's ill-health and financial problems. Questions were asked in parliament, newspapers referred to 'a scandal' and 'a national disgrace', and the lions became the subject of jokes. There was confusion over their costs as an additional £11,000 was required for their casting which was to be carried out by Baron Carlo Marochetti, himself a sculptor. (Image of Landseer in Marochetti’s studio).
Finally, on 31 January 1867, the lions cast in bronze were unveiled in Trafalgar Square. The Times, which had been so scathing a few years earlier, was full of praise, but some critics disliked them. Reynolds's Newspaper wrote "Although admirable in most respects, has certainly some glaring defects". It believed that their character was more like a sphinx than a lion. Other critics were just thankful that the whole affair was finally over.
There were then further delays caused by Landseer's ill-health and financial problems. Questions were asked in parliament, newspapers referred to 'a scandal' and 'a national disgrace', and the lions became the subject of jokes. There was confusion over their costs as an additional £11,000 was required for their casting which was to be carried out by Baron Carlo Marochetti, himself a sculptor. (Image of Landseer in Marochetti’s studio).
Finally, on 31 January 1867, the lions cast in bronze were unveiled in Trafalgar Square. The Times, which had been so scathing a few years earlier, was full of praise, but some critics disliked them. Reynolds's Newspaper wrote "Although admirable in most respects, has certainly some glaring defects". It believed that their character was more like a sphinx than a lion. Other critics were just thankful that the whole affair was finally over.
The last Frost Fair on the River Thames
Take a cold walk on the Thames.
The River Thames in London has frozen over a number of times in the past six centuries. Caused by more severe cold weather than we have nowadays and the design of the old London Bridge with its many small arches which prohibited the flow of ice on the river.
Entrepreneurs have always taken advantage of events when the public's great curiosity is aroused and the freezing of the Thames in 1814 is such an event.
A heavy frost commenced on the 27 December 1813, followed by two days of heavy snowfall. The upper reaches of Thames froze. There then follow a slight thaw and the ice broke up and floated down stream but became jammed into a solid jagged mass between London and Blackfriars Bridges.
The River Thames in London has frozen over a number of times in the past six centuries. Caused by more severe cold weather than we have nowadays and the design of the old London Bridge with its many small arches which prohibited the flow of ice on the river.
Entrepreneurs have always taken advantage of events when the public's great curiosity is aroused and the freezing of the Thames in 1814 is such an event.
A heavy frost commenced on the 27 December 1813, followed by two days of heavy snowfall. The upper reaches of Thames froze. There then follow a slight thaw and the ice broke up and floated down stream but became jammed into a solid jagged mass between London and Blackfriars Bridges.
The cold returned and by the 30th people were setting out to walk across the ice to the other river bank.
The watermen, unable to ply their trade, demanded a toll which was paid quite happily by the public.
Tents, stalls and amusements were then set up and by the 4th January a street had been created on the ice dubbed 'City Road'. The tents and stalls were decorated with 'flags of all nations, streamers and signs'. Kitchens and furnaces were set up offering roasted lamb, rabbits, geese and sausages. Drinks on offer included gin and beer. On some of the stalls, wags placed humorous signs: 'for sale - no land rent and no ground rent'.
A barge which had been marooned in the middle of the river was converted by the watermen into a dancing room. There was even a printing press set up selling pamphlets commemorating 'the great frost of 1814'.
The ice was not entirely safe in places, as some discovered when they strayed away from the area. At least three men fell into the river, disappearing below the ice and drowning.
The fair ended on the 5th when there was sudden shifting of the mass of ice by the incoming tide which took away the booths and resulted in a number of people having to be rescued from the floating ice.
The demolition of the old London Bridge in 1831 and improvements to the flow of the river made this the last Frost Fair London will ever see.
Sources include: Jackson's Oxford Journal February 12, 1814
Curiosities of London By John Timbs, 1868
The watermen, unable to ply their trade, demanded a toll which was paid quite happily by the public.
Tents, stalls and amusements were then set up and by the 4th January a street had been created on the ice dubbed 'City Road'. The tents and stalls were decorated with 'flags of all nations, streamers and signs'. Kitchens and furnaces were set up offering roasted lamb, rabbits, geese and sausages. Drinks on offer included gin and beer. On some of the stalls, wags placed humorous signs: 'for sale - no land rent and no ground rent'.
A barge which had been marooned in the middle of the river was converted by the watermen into a dancing room. There was even a printing press set up selling pamphlets commemorating 'the great frost of 1814'.
The ice was not entirely safe in places, as some discovered when they strayed away from the area. At least three men fell into the river, disappearing below the ice and drowning.
The fair ended on the 5th when there was sudden shifting of the mass of ice by the incoming tide which took away the booths and resulted in a number of people having to be rescued from the floating ice.
The demolition of the old London Bridge in 1831 and improvements to the flow of the river made this the last Frost Fair London will ever see.
Sources include: Jackson's Oxford Journal February 12, 1814
Curiosities of London By John Timbs, 1868
How did your farming ancestors harvest a wheat field?
The teamwork involved in harvesting a field of wheat.
For thousands of years before the invention of the steam engine and mechanised farming, wheat fields were mown (reaping) by the hard labour of men and women using the simple tools of sickles, scythes and rakes. It was back-breaking work, often in scorching temperatures at the height of summer.
This example using scythes is from 19th century Britain before the wide-spread use of machinery. Harvest-time was dependent on a good dry spell of weather. When the wheat was ready for reaping, the farmer or farm steward organised and directed the labourers. The scythe-men (1) were the first to start. There were three main designs of scythes in Britain at this time. The image above has three men using all three types.
For thousands of years before the invention of the steam engine and mechanised farming, wheat fields were mown (reaping) by the hard labour of men and women using the simple tools of sickles, scythes and rakes. It was back-breaking work, often in scorching temperatures at the height of summer.
This example using scythes is from 19th century Britain before the wide-spread use of machinery. Harvest-time was dependent on a good dry spell of weather. When the wheat was ready for reaping, the farmer or farm steward organised and directed the labourers. The scythe-men (1) were the first to start. There were three main designs of scythes in Britain at this time. The image above has three men using all three types.
As they began to swing the scythe and cut the wheat, the wheat was caught in a cradle on the scythe and fell onto to the ground to their left in a neat and square line. This was known as the swath. They aimed to have the swath cut the same length. The reaper tried to keep the scythe close to the ground to maximise the length of the cut and to keep what was left in the ground, the stubble, as short possible. However, hitting the ground with the scythe meant it would need re-sharpening. A good reaper could cover thirty yards before the scythe required re-sharpening.
Following on behind were women and older children, the gatherers (2), who first made a band ready to tie up the wheat. The band was made from a hand-full of wheat. The swath was then laid on the band ready for the bandster (3) to tie the swath up, and for the other two bandsters to stack the completed sheaf with others, creating a stook. The stook was then ready to be loaded onto a cart and taken away for threshing and winnowing to separate the wheat from the stalks.
Finally came the raker (4), who with a specially designed stubble rake, cleared the ground of any loose stalks of wheat ready for them to be banded up by the bandster. They were placed near the stook, but were treated differently in the threshing process as they could contain dirt and stones picked up during the raking process.
It was said that a good mower followed by a woman and bandsters could reap an acre to acre and half in a day.
Following on behind were women and older children, the gatherers (2), who first made a band ready to tie up the wheat. The band was made from a hand-full of wheat. The swath was then laid on the band ready for the bandster (3) to tie the swath up, and for the other two bandsters to stack the completed sheaf with others, creating a stook. The stook was then ready to be loaded onto a cart and taken away for threshing and winnowing to separate the wheat from the stalks.
Finally came the raker (4), who with a specially designed stubble rake, cleared the ground of any loose stalks of wheat ready for them to be banded up by the bandster. They were placed near the stook, but were treated differently in the threshing process as they could contain dirt and stones picked up during the raking process.
It was said that a good mower followed by a woman and bandsters could reap an acre to acre and half in a day.
Where was Cottonopolis?
The nickname of a powerful and wealthy city.
Cottonopolis was a name given to the city of Manchester, England, famed as the world's first industrial city, and in the nineteenth century, the home of the cotton industry in Britain. It was also known as Cotton City.
The term was in general use by the early 1850s, the Manchester Times newspaper referred to "this blessed Cottonopolis of ours" [1]
The first textile mill was in built in Manchester in 1781 by Richard Arkwright. Within 100 years there were to be over 50 mills operating in the city. The huge growth of city and the foundation of its prosperity was the result of the coming together of a number of factors. The building of canals and later railways created a good transport system for the import and export of raw materials and manufactured goods. Plentiful water for the first water powered mills, and ample supplies of coal within easy reach. Finally, the genius and business acumen of inventors and businessmen of the time.
Cottonopolis was a name given to the city of Manchester, England, famed as the world's first industrial city, and in the nineteenth century, the home of the cotton industry in Britain. It was also known as Cotton City.
The term was in general use by the early 1850s, the Manchester Times newspaper referred to "this blessed Cottonopolis of ours" [1]
The first textile mill was in built in Manchester in 1781 by Richard Arkwright. Within 100 years there were to be over 50 mills operating in the city. The huge growth of city and the foundation of its prosperity was the result of the coming together of a number of factors. The building of canals and later railways created a good transport system for the import and export of raw materials and manufactured goods. Plentiful water for the first water powered mills, and ample supplies of coal within easy reach. Finally, the genius and business acumen of inventors and businessmen of the time.
Manchester grew rapidly drawing in thousands of people from all over England. But the rapid urbanisation of the area brought its accompanying problems of over-crowding and poor housing.
Huge mills were constructed and advances in technology meant many of the processes became mechanised. Some of the mills were even connected by underground tunnels and rail tracks. Cotton became king with raw cotton being imported and cotton products exported.
Other industries in textile manufacturing also sprang up and an engineering industry to support and supply the mills. Huge warehouses were constructed to store the goods ready for their use or export.
Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The wealth and confidence of the Victorian city is revealed in Manchester Town Hall. Well worth a visit if you're in the area. Finished in 1887 and costing of £1 million, this neo-Gothic building was designed by Alfred Waterhouse. It is richly decorated incorporating many symbols and images referring to Manchester's industries, history and status. The mosaic floors have 'bees' to represent Manchester's busy industry, while the wall murals by Ford Madox Brown show scenes from Manchester's history.
[1] Manchester Times 29 April 1854.
Huge mills were constructed and advances in technology meant many of the processes became mechanised. Some of the mills were even connected by underground tunnels and rail tracks. Cotton became king with raw cotton being imported and cotton products exported.
Other industries in textile manufacturing also sprang up and an engineering industry to support and supply the mills. Huge warehouses were constructed to store the goods ready for their use or export.
Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The wealth and confidence of the Victorian city is revealed in Manchester Town Hall. Well worth a visit if you're in the area. Finished in 1887 and costing of £1 million, this neo-Gothic building was designed by Alfred Waterhouse. It is richly decorated incorporating many symbols and images referring to Manchester's industries, history and status. The mosaic floors have 'bees' to represent Manchester's busy industry, while the wall murals by Ford Madox Brown show scenes from Manchester's history.
[1] Manchester Times 29 April 1854.
Eating and Drinking in Sheffield
Sheffield has a very cosmopolitan attitude to food. The diverse cultures brought to Sheffield over the years have created a melting pot of traditional and exotic menus. Whatever you fancy from Turkish or Greek cuisine to classic French food there will be somewhere that makes it.
It is difficult to categorise establishments due to the wide range of menu provided by each of Sheffield's pubs, bars, cafés and restaurants so that you can get an authentic Indian meal from a pub or Falafel from an Internet café.
Drinking is a popular activity in Sheffield and there are many pubs, bars and clubs to cater for the demand. As Sheffield is becoming more continental in attitude eating and drinking are viewed as a shared activity and there are very few places that serve only food or alcohol.
Drinking is a popular activity in Sheffield and there are many pubs, bars and clubs to cater for the demand. As Sheffield is becoming more continental in attitude eating and drinking are viewed as a shared activity and there are very few places that serve only food or alcohol.
How to Overcome Bullying
Overcoming Cyberbullying
1- Ignore the cyberbully by not responding to text messages, emails or instant messages. Cyberbullies want you to engage with them; responding will only encourages them to further harass you because they know they have control over your emotions.
2- Save all messages sent by a bully including chats, blog posts and text messages. Messages sent on the Internet can be traced by the police and Internet service providers through the bully's Internet Protocol address. Keeping a record will show how often the bullying occurs, when it occurs and by whom.
3- Report the cyberbully to the authorities including the local police and the victim's school if he is a student. Many state senates have passed bills that require school districts to expand their bullying policies to include cyberbullying, according to the Social Safety website.
1- Ignore the cyberbully by not responding to text messages, emails or instant messages. Cyberbullies want you to engage with them; responding will only encourages them to further harass you because they know they have control over your emotions.
2- Save all messages sent by a bully including chats, blog posts and text messages. Messages sent on the Internet can be traced by the police and Internet service providers through the bully's Internet Protocol address. Keeping a record will show how often the bullying occurs, when it occurs and by whom.
3- Report the cyberbully to the authorities including the local police and the victim's school if he is a student. Many state senates have passed bills that require school districts to expand their bullying policies to include cyberbullying, according to the Social Safety website.
Overcoming Workplace Bullying
4- Document the bully's harassment against you in a journal. Keeping a record will show how often the bullying occurs. According to the Bully Online website, recording the pattern of bullying is important because it reveals intent and a bully can't explain away a pattern as easily as a single incident.
5- Talk to your coworkers to determine if they are experiencing bullying by the same person. If they are, work together and have them also keep records of the bully's behavior.
6- Research your company's policy to see if the bully has violated any rules with their bullying. Also look for laws against harassment or discrimination that the bully has broken. The Workplace Bullying website suggests consulting with an employment lawyer to help determine if any laws were violated.
7- Contact the bully's most senior boss and using your journal as evidence, as well as your coworkers' journals, explain how the bully has violated company rules or laws. The Workplace Bullying website recommends speaking in a unemotional and concise manner and to describe to the boss how the bully is disrupting the company's productivity.
8- Describe to the boss what actions you want taken against the bully such as a transfer or disciplinary action.
Overcoming School Bullying
9- Report the bullying to your child's school. Find out what policy the school has that address bullying before insisting on immediate actions to protect your child. Meanwhile, keep a journal of the bullying incidents.
10- Meet with the parents of the bully with a mediator or law enforcement officer present. Show the parents a journal of documented harassment their child has made if they refuse to believe your claims.
11- Meet with the superintendent or school board commissioners if the conflict it not resolved by contacting the school or meeting with the parents. If the child is being physically bullied, contact local law enforcement.
4- Document the bully's harassment against you in a journal. Keeping a record will show how often the bullying occurs. According to the Bully Online website, recording the pattern of bullying is important because it reveals intent and a bully can't explain away a pattern as easily as a single incident.
5- Talk to your coworkers to determine if they are experiencing bullying by the same person. If they are, work together and have them also keep records of the bully's behavior.
6- Research your company's policy to see if the bully has violated any rules with their bullying. Also look for laws against harassment or discrimination that the bully has broken. The Workplace Bullying website suggests consulting with an employment lawyer to help determine if any laws were violated.
7- Contact the bully's most senior boss and using your journal as evidence, as well as your coworkers' journals, explain how the bully has violated company rules or laws. The Workplace Bullying website recommends speaking in a unemotional and concise manner and to describe to the boss how the bully is disrupting the company's productivity.
8- Describe to the boss what actions you want taken against the bully such as a transfer or disciplinary action.
Overcoming School Bullying
9- Report the bullying to your child's school. Find out what policy the school has that address bullying before insisting on immediate actions to protect your child. Meanwhile, keep a journal of the bullying incidents.
10- Meet with the parents of the bully with a mediator or law enforcement officer present. Show the parents a journal of documented harassment their child has made if they refuse to believe your claims.
11- Meet with the superintendent or school board commissioners if the conflict it not resolved by contacting the school or meeting with the parents. If the child is being physically bullied, contact local law enforcement.
What is Shoddy?
A good example of early recycling.
If someone says that something is shoddy they normally mean that it is badly made or of poor quality, or may be referring to bad workmanship. But where did this word come from?
Its origin goes back at least to 1813 and surprisingly refers to a process which would be seen nowadays as a good example of recycling. The recycling of wool.
Shoddy is the name given to an inferior woollen yarn made by shredding scraps of woollen rags into fibres, grinding them and then mixing them with small amounts of new wool. The object was to manufacture a cheap cloth which could be made into products and clothes. It was also known as Rag-Wool. An even finer shredding process produced what was called Mungo.
Shoddy was first made in Batley, Yorkshire, by, it is believed, Benjamin Law, and its production quickly spread to surrounding textile towns in the area.
If someone says that something is shoddy they normally mean that it is badly made or of poor quality, or may be referring to bad workmanship. But where did this word come from?
Its origin goes back at least to 1813 and surprisingly refers to a process which would be seen nowadays as a good example of recycling. The recycling of wool.
Shoddy is the name given to an inferior woollen yarn made by shredding scraps of woollen rags into fibres, grinding them and then mixing them with small amounts of new wool. The object was to manufacture a cheap cloth which could be made into products and clothes. It was also known as Rag-Wool. An even finer shredding process produced what was called Mungo.
Shoddy was first made in Batley, Yorkshire, by, it is believed, Benjamin Law, and its production quickly spread to surrounding textile towns in the area.
*********
The collection of the rags for this process started in streets all over Britain by rag dealers or rag and bone men as they became more commonly known. The rags were sorted, and any seams, or parts of the rag not suitable, were left to rot and then sold onto to farmers to manure crops. Or they were used for bedding or stuffing.
The remaining wool rags were then sent to the shoddy mills for processing. For several decades shipments of rags even arrived from continental Europe.
The rags were again sorted before the shredding process. This shredding created a very fine dust, which again, was used for manure on the fields. But the fine dust also caused health problems for many of the shoddy workers who breathed in the fine dust. It was known as 'shoddy fever'.
During the manufacturing process not all of the shoddy could be used as it was too short to spin. This was packed up in bales and sent off to Kent to be used as manure on the hop fields.
After spining the coarse cloth was sold on. In the mid-Victorian period the US and Canada was a large export market for the cloth. One common use of the material was for army uniforms and blankets.
For a detailed contemporary examination of the process see The History of the Shoddy-trade By Samuel Jubb, 1860.
Perhaps it's not so shoddy after all, but a good example of recycling.
The remaining wool rags were then sent to the shoddy mills for processing. For several decades shipments of rags even arrived from continental Europe.
The rags were again sorted before the shredding process. This shredding created a very fine dust, which again, was used for manure on the fields. But the fine dust also caused health problems for many of the shoddy workers who breathed in the fine dust. It was known as 'shoddy fever'.
During the manufacturing process not all of the shoddy could be used as it was too short to spin. This was packed up in bales and sent off to Kent to be used as manure on the hop fields.
After spining the coarse cloth was sold on. In the mid-Victorian period the US and Canada was a large export market for the cloth. One common use of the material was for army uniforms and blankets.
For a detailed contemporary examination of the process see The History of the Shoddy-trade By Samuel Jubb, 1860.
Perhaps it's not so shoddy after all, but a good example of recycling.
Who were the original Hooligans?
When street roughs made a name for themselves.
The name Hooligan is now used to describe a person, more often than not a youth, who takes part in destructive, unruly and anti-social behaviour. The original meaning meant a young ruffian who was a member of a street gang (Oxford English Dictionary, 'OED').
But who were the original Hooligans? Hooligan is an Irish surname. How it came to used in its present meaning, the OED has no clear evidence. It provides citations from 1898 that Hooligan referred to a gang of youths in the South London area, but cannot find citations to support other suggestions that the name was a corruption of Hooley or Hooley's gang; or references from a music hall song about a rowdy Irish family, or came from a Patrick Hoolihan or Hooligan as claimed by Clarence Rook in 1899 [5].
Here at History House we thought we would do some more research and have found a slightly earlier reference to Hooligans.
The name Hooligan is now used to describe a person, more often than not a youth, who takes part in destructive, unruly and anti-social behaviour. The original meaning meant a young ruffian who was a member of a street gang (Oxford English Dictionary, 'OED').
But who were the original Hooligans? Hooligan is an Irish surname. How it came to used in its present meaning, the OED has no clear evidence. It provides citations from 1898 that Hooligan referred to a gang of youths in the South London area, but cannot find citations to support other suggestions that the name was a corruption of Hooley or Hooley's gang; or references from a music hall song about a rowdy Irish family, or came from a Patrick Hoolihan or Hooligan as claimed by Clarence Rook in 1899 [5].
Here at History House we thought we would do some more research and have found a slightly earlier reference to Hooligans.
London newspapers in April and May 1894 carried reports of a case at Southwark Police Court in South London where it was said that Charles Clarke, aged 19, charged with assault on police, was
"the king of a gang of youths known as the 'Hooligan Boys' ". [1]
The gang had attended a music hall and created a disturbance which resulted in the Police being called. At the later remand hearing a newspaper repeated that allegation, but referred to the "O'Hooligan Boys". [2]
The next month, two other youths were brought before Lambeth Police Court for threatening behaviour. They were described as members of the gang known as "the Hooligan Boys". [3]
The problem of gangs of youths in the Lambeth area appears to have been a big problem for in October 1894 the Illustrated Police News reported that local tradesmen were organising a deputation to send to the Home Secretary as police needed support in "their efforts to stamp-out the so-called 'hooligan' gangs of roughs". [4]
Reference to the hooligans then dropped from the newspapers until April 1898 when Henry Mappin as murdered in Lambeth. A member of the Hooligan gang was charged with his murder.
There was considerable publicity concerning this case with headlines such as 'Reign of terror in Lambeth' and 'Dreadful state of things in south Lambeth'.
Within a short time, whatever the area of London, newspapers switched from using their normal phrase 'gang of ruffians' to the more sensational a 'hooligan gang' or 'gang of hooligans'. One defence solicitor representing his client in Lambeth court on an assault charge was reported to say "that everybody who got into a row in that district was now called a Hooligan". [5]
The word, and its derivative, Hooliganism, was now fixed in the English language.
For other speculation on its origin see A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English By Eric Partridge, Paul Beale. It is interesting to note that despite Patrick Hooligan's alleged notoriety, his name fails to appear in any of the British Library's 19th century newspaper collection.
[1] Daily News (London), Tuesday, April 24, 1894
[2] Reynolds's Newspaper (London), Sunday, April 29, 1894
[3] The Illustrated Police News etc (London), Saturday, May 19, 1894
[4] The Illustrated Police News etc (London), Saturday, October 20, 1894
[5] The Penny Illustrated Paper and Illustrated Times (London), Saturday, August 13, 1898
"the king of a gang of youths known as the 'Hooligan Boys' ". [1]
The gang had attended a music hall and created a disturbance which resulted in the Police being called. At the later remand hearing a newspaper repeated that allegation, but referred to the "O'Hooligan Boys". [2]
The next month, two other youths were brought before Lambeth Police Court for threatening behaviour. They were described as members of the gang known as "the Hooligan Boys". [3]
The problem of gangs of youths in the Lambeth area appears to have been a big problem for in October 1894 the Illustrated Police News reported that local tradesmen were organising a deputation to send to the Home Secretary as police needed support in "their efforts to stamp-out the so-called 'hooligan' gangs of roughs". [4]
Reference to the hooligans then dropped from the newspapers until April 1898 when Henry Mappin as murdered in Lambeth. A member of the Hooligan gang was charged with his murder.
There was considerable publicity concerning this case with headlines such as 'Reign of terror in Lambeth' and 'Dreadful state of things in south Lambeth'.
Within a short time, whatever the area of London, newspapers switched from using their normal phrase 'gang of ruffians' to the more sensational a 'hooligan gang' or 'gang of hooligans'. One defence solicitor representing his client in Lambeth court on an assault charge was reported to say "that everybody who got into a row in that district was now called a Hooligan". [5]
The word, and its derivative, Hooliganism, was now fixed in the English language.
For other speculation on its origin see A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English By Eric Partridge, Paul Beale. It is interesting to note that despite Patrick Hooligan's alleged notoriety, his name fails to appear in any of the British Library's 19th century newspaper collection.
[1] Daily News (London), Tuesday, April 24, 1894
[2] Reynolds's Newspaper (London), Sunday, April 29, 1894
[3] The Illustrated Police News etc (London), Saturday, May 19, 1894
[4] The Illustrated Police News etc (London), Saturday, October 20, 1894
[5] The Penny Illustrated Paper and Illustrated Times (London), Saturday, August 13, 1898
Was vinegar and brown paper really used to treat injuries?
Would Jack recover using this as medical treatment?
You may know that part of the famous nursery rhyme of Jack and Jill which goes, ...to mend his head with vinegar and brown paper.
This does indeed refer to the use of vinegar and brown paper for the treatment of wounds, bruises and other injuries. It is a very old remedy which is still used today for swelling and bruising, or headaches.
The brown paper used in 18th and 19th centuries was made of old rope, canvas and other sacking, and could be very coarse, but it was found to be useful when applying a substance to the skin. Cider vinegar, meanwhile, has been used in medicine for hundreds of years.
For bruises, one method was to take six or seven sheets of brown paper and soak them in a saucepan containing vinegar. The vinegar was heated and allowed to simmer making sure the paper did not break up. The paper was then applied in layers over the affected area. Often secured in place with a cloth or rag.
Chambers Encyclopaedia of 1868 recommended that "the heat and pain commonly experienced in sprains are often relieved by the local application of brown paper soaked in diluted vinegar and changed when the feeling of heat returns."
Sometimes it was used for nose bleeds, and a letter to The Cottager's Monthly Visitor (1849) suggested it helped with toothache: "Steep a piece of the coarsest brown paper you can procure in some cold vinegar. Apply it to the face before bed time and tie a handkerchief over the same I have known great benefit to arise from this application."
In Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens has Squeers recovering from heavy bruising which required "Vinegar and brown paper, vinegar and brown paper, from morning to night. I suppose there was a matter of half a ream of brown paper stuck upon me from first to last."
Other substances placed on brown paper included honey for sprains, and tar for pains in the chest.
You may know that part of the famous nursery rhyme of Jack and Jill which goes, ...to mend his head with vinegar and brown paper.
This does indeed refer to the use of vinegar and brown paper for the treatment of wounds, bruises and other injuries. It is a very old remedy which is still used today for swelling and bruising, or headaches.
The brown paper used in 18th and 19th centuries was made of old rope, canvas and other sacking, and could be very coarse, but it was found to be useful when applying a substance to the skin. Cider vinegar, meanwhile, has been used in medicine for hundreds of years.
For bruises, one method was to take six or seven sheets of brown paper and soak them in a saucepan containing vinegar. The vinegar was heated and allowed to simmer making sure the paper did not break up. The paper was then applied in layers over the affected area. Often secured in place with a cloth or rag.
Chambers Encyclopaedia of 1868 recommended that "the heat and pain commonly experienced in sprains are often relieved by the local application of brown paper soaked in diluted vinegar and changed when the feeling of heat returns."
Sometimes it was used for nose bleeds, and a letter to The Cottager's Monthly Visitor (1849) suggested it helped with toothache: "Steep a piece of the coarsest brown paper you can procure in some cold vinegar. Apply it to the face before bed time and tie a handkerchief over the same I have known great benefit to arise from this application."
In Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens has Squeers recovering from heavy bruising which required "Vinegar and brown paper, vinegar and brown paper, from morning to night. I suppose there was a matter of half a ream of brown paper stuck upon me from first to last."
Other substances placed on brown paper included honey for sprains, and tar for pains in the chest.
Did Prince Albert really get shot saving Queen Victoria from assassination?
The truth behind the film.
The 2009 film The Young Victoria starring Emily Blunt looks at the early life of Queen Victoria. Her strict upbringing, the political machinations over who would be the next monarch, her struggling in the early years of her rule, and, of course, her romance and marriage to Albert, later Prince.
In the film an assassination attempt is made on her life. Prince Albert throws himself across her to defend her and he is hit by the bullet. Did this really happen? Like many films there is a little bending of the facts to make a good story.
There were several assassination attempts on Queen Victoria during her reign and the one featured in the film was an attempt on her life made by Edward Oxford, an eighteen year old, who, using two pistols, fired twice at the Queen as she and Prince Albert were riding past in a carriage on Constitution Hill.
The 2009 film The Young Victoria starring Emily Blunt looks at the early life of Queen Victoria. Her strict upbringing, the political machinations over who would be the next monarch, her struggling in the early years of her rule, and, of course, her romance and marriage to Albert, later Prince.
In the film an assassination attempt is made on her life. Prince Albert throws himself across her to defend her and he is hit by the bullet. Did this really happen? Like many films there is a little bending of the facts to make a good story.
There were several assassination attempts on Queen Victoria during her reign and the one featured in the film was an attempt on her life made by Edward Oxford, an eighteen year old, who, using two pistols, fired twice at the Queen as she and Prince Albert were riding past in a carriage on Constitution Hill.
The Times newspaper reported that Oxford
"... presented a pistol and fired it directly, either at Her Majesty or Prince Albert, there being no person between him and the carriage. The Prince who, it would seem, had heard the whistling of the ball, turned his head in the direction from which the report came, and Her Majesty at the same instant rose up in the carriage, but Prince Albert as suddenly pulled her down by his side. The man then drew from behind his back a second pistol, which he discharged after the carriage, which proceeding at the ordinary pace, had ... passed him a little." The Times 11 June 1840, page 4.
The day after the attempted assassination, The Times reported that Oxford was giving a different account saying that the Prince was even trying to get out of the carriage.
"Oh, I know to the contrary; for when I fired the first pistol, Albert was about to jump from the carriage and put his foot out, but when he saw me present the second pistol, he immediately drew back."
The Times, 12 June 1840, page 6.
However, a witness at the later trial testified that Prince Albert had indeed pushed the Queen down,
"...the flash of the pistol came almost immediately over the Queen's head - the Queen was crouching - she rather crouched, and the Prince stood - I think, to the best of my knowledge, the Queen first rose, and by what I observed, the Prince rather pressed her down; and it was immediately before the second pistol was fired that her Majesty crouched - it was the second flash which appeared to come over the Queen's head."
There is no evidence that Prince Albert receiving any injury. The scriptwriter for the film, Julian Fellowes, has admitted that the injury has been added to the film's story for dramatic effect.
Oxford went on to be tried for high treason at the Old Bailey on 6 July 1840, but was acquitted on the grounds of insanity and sent to Bethlehem Hospital. The full account of trial can be read on the Old Bailey Archive.
"... presented a pistol and fired it directly, either at Her Majesty or Prince Albert, there being no person between him and the carriage. The Prince who, it would seem, had heard the whistling of the ball, turned his head in the direction from which the report came, and Her Majesty at the same instant rose up in the carriage, but Prince Albert as suddenly pulled her down by his side. The man then drew from behind his back a second pistol, which he discharged after the carriage, which proceeding at the ordinary pace, had ... passed him a little." The Times 11 June 1840, page 4.
The day after the attempted assassination, The Times reported that Oxford was giving a different account saying that the Prince was even trying to get out of the carriage.
"Oh, I know to the contrary; for when I fired the first pistol, Albert was about to jump from the carriage and put his foot out, but when he saw me present the second pistol, he immediately drew back."
The Times, 12 June 1840, page 6.
However, a witness at the later trial testified that Prince Albert had indeed pushed the Queen down,
"...the flash of the pistol came almost immediately over the Queen's head - the Queen was crouching - she rather crouched, and the Prince stood - I think, to the best of my knowledge, the Queen first rose, and by what I observed, the Prince rather pressed her down; and it was immediately before the second pistol was fired that her Majesty crouched - it was the second flash which appeared to come over the Queen's head."
There is no evidence that Prince Albert receiving any injury. The scriptwriter for the film, Julian Fellowes, has admitted that the injury has been added to the film's story for dramatic effect.
Oxford went on to be tried for high treason at the Old Bailey on 6 July 1840, but was acquitted on the grounds of insanity and sent to Bethlehem Hospital. The full account of trial can be read on the Old Bailey Archive.
The first driving tests
When order was brought to the British roads.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the appalling number of deaths on the roads of Britain were causing great concern to the Government and the public. In January 1934, The Times newspaper reported on the 'slaughter on the roads' and that in the previous year 7,125 were killed and 216,401 injured on Britain's roads. At the time the number of cars on the roads was estimated to be 1,800,000 [1]. Compare this with the figures from 2007 and you will realise how bad the situation had become: 2,946 people killed and 247,780 casualties, with 26,878,000 licensed cars [2].
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the appalling number of deaths on the roads of Britain were causing great concern to the Government and the public. In January 1934, The Times newspaper reported on the 'slaughter on the roads' and that in the previous year 7,125 were killed and 216,401 injured on Britain's roads. At the time the number of cars on the roads was estimated to be 1,800,000 [1]. Compare this with the figures from 2007 and you will realise how bad the situation had become: 2,946 people killed and 247,780 casualties, with 26,878,000 licensed cars [2].
In 1929 and 1934 legislation was passed to introduce a 30 mph speed limit in built-up areas, endorsements for speeding or careless driving, licence disqualification, and as an experiment, the introduction of special crossing places for pedestrians in London. These became known as Belisha crossings, and later became our well-known 'zebra crossings'.
In 1935 a driving test was introduced. Voluntary at first and then on 1 June, compulsory. The test was designed to ensure that each new driver had the competence to drive. While learning to drive, a provisional license could be applied for which lasted 3 months. The legislation also introduced the requirement to show a red letter 'L' on the vehicle.
To conduct the test 13 supervising examiners and 250 driving examiners were appointed. This earliest test contained many individual skill tests which are still retained in the test today:-
General questions on the highway code.
Correct use of hand signals.
Emergency braking on the command - stop!
Pull away on a steep hill.
Three point turn.
Reverse manoeuvre.
Sources [1] The Times, May 3, 1935.
[2] Department for Transport
In 1935 a driving test was introduced. Voluntary at first and then on 1 June, compulsory. The test was designed to ensure that each new driver had the competence to drive. While learning to drive, a provisional license could be applied for which lasted 3 months. The legislation also introduced the requirement to show a red letter 'L' on the vehicle.
To conduct the test 13 supervising examiners and 250 driving examiners were appointed. This earliest test contained many individual skill tests which are still retained in the test today:-
General questions on the highway code.
Correct use of hand signals.
Emergency braking on the command - stop!
Pull away on a steep hill.
Three point turn.
Reverse manoeuvre.
Sources [1] The Times, May 3, 1935.
[2] Department for Transport
Learn How to Apply Makeup in 10 Easy Steps
Step 1: Hydrating the Skin
Hydrating the skin is a simple, but very important, first step. It gives you the smooth and supple skin that is ideal for applying makeup. First spray clean skin with water or a spray fixative, then liberally apply moisturizer.
Step 2: Primer
Use a primer to prepare your skin for the concealer and foundation. Apply all over the face and neck. With a primer, makeup goes on better and lasts longer. Primers can also help to minimize pores.
Step 3: Concealer
Use concealer to cover problem areas on the skin such as redness, spots or blemishes. Pat onto the skin wherever needed. Concealers come in different tints. In this case, Gault uses a yellow-based concealer to even out the red areas on the model's face.
Hydrating the skin is a simple, but very important, first step. It gives you the smooth and supple skin that is ideal for applying makeup. First spray clean skin with water or a spray fixative, then liberally apply moisturizer.
Step 2: Primer
Use a primer to prepare your skin for the concealer and foundation. Apply all over the face and neck. With a primer, makeup goes on better and lasts longer. Primers can also help to minimize pores.
Step 3: Concealer
Use concealer to cover problem areas on the skin such as redness, spots or blemishes. Pat onto the skin wherever needed. Concealers come in different tints. In this case, Gault uses a yellow-based concealer to even out the red areas on the model's face.
Step 4: Foundation
Select a foundation color that's as close as possible to your natural skin tone. Apply all over the face and blend into the neck. You can keep layering it but be sure that it's smoothly applied and well-blended. You want it to be invisible to the eye for a flawless, balanced finish.
Step 5: Contouring -- Highlighter and Bronzer
Highlighter and bronzer help contour the face to create definition. Bronzer should be a warm hue that's a bit darker than your natural skin tone. Highlighter is brighter. Sweep bronzer under the cheekbone and continue up along the hairline. Then apply highlighter on the cheekbone for instant killer cheekbones. You can help define your jaw by adding bronzer just beneath the jawline. Regardless of the feature you choose to enhance, be subtle.
Step 6: Blush
Blush gives you a nice, rosy glow. While smiling, apply blush to the apples of the cheeks and blend back toward the hairline. You don't want any noticeable splotches of makeup so blend well. Be sure to avoid applying blush below the cheekbone.
Step 7: Brows
Defining the eyebrows really makes the eyes pop. Here, Gault uses a pencil that is a slightly lighter shade than the model's eyebrow. This helps make her eye color more vibrant and brings out the lighter tones in her hair. Follow the shape of the eyebrow and fill it in to enhance your natural brow line.
Step 8: Eyes -- Shadow and Liner
The next step is a big one: eyes. For a natural look, use neutral tones like earthy browns. Apply a light brown shadow all over the lid and crease. Then, with a darker brown, start at the outer corner of the eye and work the shadow along the crease and the edge of the lid. This will create depth and elongate the eye. Make sure all the shadow is blended. Next, add brown liner to the lid along the lash line. Apply from the outside in and soften the line.
Step 8 Con't: Eyes -- Mascara
Now that your eyes have depth, it's time to make them really stand out with a few coats of mascara. If you have an eyelash curler, use that on the lashes before applying any mascara. When you apply the mascara, be sure to coat and separate every last lash. Use a clean mascara brush, free of clumps.
Step 9: Lips
To complete this natural look, all you have to do is finish up with the lips. For a daytime look, you'll want to choose a neutral shade. First use a pencil to line the lips. This will create your lip shape. Then apply a coat of lipstick, and finish off with a matching gloss.
Select a foundation color that's as close as possible to your natural skin tone. Apply all over the face and blend into the neck. You can keep layering it but be sure that it's smoothly applied and well-blended. You want it to be invisible to the eye for a flawless, balanced finish.
Step 5: Contouring -- Highlighter and Bronzer
Highlighter and bronzer help contour the face to create definition. Bronzer should be a warm hue that's a bit darker than your natural skin tone. Highlighter is brighter. Sweep bronzer under the cheekbone and continue up along the hairline. Then apply highlighter on the cheekbone for instant killer cheekbones. You can help define your jaw by adding bronzer just beneath the jawline. Regardless of the feature you choose to enhance, be subtle.
Step 6: Blush
Blush gives you a nice, rosy glow. While smiling, apply blush to the apples of the cheeks and blend back toward the hairline. You don't want any noticeable splotches of makeup so blend well. Be sure to avoid applying blush below the cheekbone.
Step 7: Brows
Defining the eyebrows really makes the eyes pop. Here, Gault uses a pencil that is a slightly lighter shade than the model's eyebrow. This helps make her eye color more vibrant and brings out the lighter tones in her hair. Follow the shape of the eyebrow and fill it in to enhance your natural brow line.
Step 8: Eyes -- Shadow and Liner
The next step is a big one: eyes. For a natural look, use neutral tones like earthy browns. Apply a light brown shadow all over the lid and crease. Then, with a darker brown, start at the outer corner of the eye and work the shadow along the crease and the edge of the lid. This will create depth and elongate the eye. Make sure all the shadow is blended. Next, add brown liner to the lid along the lash line. Apply from the outside in and soften the line.
Step 8 Con't: Eyes -- Mascara
Now that your eyes have depth, it's time to make them really stand out with a few coats of mascara. If you have an eyelash curler, use that on the lashes before applying any mascara. When you apply the mascara, be sure to coat and separate every last lash. Use a clean mascara brush, free of clumps.
Step 9: Lips
To complete this natural look, all you have to do is finish up with the lips. For a daytime look, you'll want to choose a neutral shade. First use a pencil to line the lips. This will create your lip shape. Then apply a coat of lipstick, and finish off with a matching gloss.
Step 10: Day to Night
The final step is transitioning your daytime makeup into something more glamorous for evening. It's just three easy steps. First add more blush. Then apply black liquid eyeliner for more dramatic eyes. Finally, go for a classic red lip. With a few items you can carry in your purse, you're ready for nighttime in no time.
The final step is transitioning your daytime makeup into something more glamorous for evening. It's just three easy steps. First add more blush. Then apply black liquid eyeliner for more dramatic eyes. Finally, go for a classic red lip. With a few items you can carry in your purse, you're ready for nighttime in no time.
Facts About English Tea
History
In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I gave permission for the British East India Co. to open up trade routes and negotiations with spice growers in the Far East, India and Southeast Asia. These same routes became the basis for trading tea, although the practice did not begin until the 1670s.
Popularization
By the turn of the 17th century, tea was commonplace in London, on sale in over 500 cafes. The practice of drinking tea became even more popular when Queen Anne made a point of opting for tea as opposed to ale for her morning beverage. During the era of the Industrial Revolution, families fell into the custom of serving tea with their main meal of the day, which consisted of bread, meat, pickles, chutneys and cheese. The practice of eating this meal at a high dining table rather than a low tea table resulted in the expression "high tea."
In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I gave permission for the British East India Co. to open up trade routes and negotiations with spice growers in the Far East, India and Southeast Asia. These same routes became the basis for trading tea, although the practice did not begin until the 1670s.
Popularization
By the turn of the 17th century, tea was commonplace in London, on sale in over 500 cafes. The practice of drinking tea became even more popular when Queen Anne made a point of opting for tea as opposed to ale for her morning beverage. During the era of the Industrial Revolution, families fell into the custom of serving tea with their main meal of the day, which consisted of bread, meat, pickles, chutneys and cheese. The practice of eating this meal at a high dining table rather than a low tea table resulted in the expression "high tea."
Types
Tea falls into four main categories. The most popular is black tea, which covers a range of flavors including Assam, Ceylon and Darjeeling. In black tea, the leaves are oxidized, but in green tea, the unoxidized leaves are heated after they are picked to stop oxidation. Oolong tea is the happy medium between green tea and black tea as it is semifermented. The rarest type of tea is white tea, whose leaves can only be picked during a slim season of a few weeks. White tea grows only in China's Fujian province.
Tea with Meals
The popularity of English tea has produced two distinct customs for enjoying its benefits with a meal. The first, afternoon tea, is considered more of a snack than a meal. In afternoon tea, hot tea accompanies traditional sweets such as scones, shortbread, biscuits and buns. If the scones come with clotted cream and jam, the repast is known as cream tea. High tea may also feature sweets, but it is preceded by savory foods such as pasties, sandwiches, cheese and breads. These days, it is often referred to as dinner or supper.
Etiquette
When adding sugar or milk to the tea, you do not stir with the spoon, but rather gently fold the tea two or three times. A used teaspoon should be placed on the right side of the saucer. Never raise your saucer unless you are standing while drinking tea. Do not add cream to tea. Milk is fine, typically poured in after the tea. Lemon slices, not wedges, are an acceptable accompaniment, but lemon cannot be added to tea that has milk because it causes curdling.
Tea falls into four main categories. The most popular is black tea, which covers a range of flavors including Assam, Ceylon and Darjeeling. In black tea, the leaves are oxidized, but in green tea, the unoxidized leaves are heated after they are picked to stop oxidation. Oolong tea is the happy medium between green tea and black tea as it is semifermented. The rarest type of tea is white tea, whose leaves can only be picked during a slim season of a few weeks. White tea grows only in China's Fujian province.
Tea with Meals
The popularity of English tea has produced two distinct customs for enjoying its benefits with a meal. The first, afternoon tea, is considered more of a snack than a meal. In afternoon tea, hot tea accompanies traditional sweets such as scones, shortbread, biscuits and buns. If the scones come with clotted cream and jam, the repast is known as cream tea. High tea may also feature sweets, but it is preceded by savory foods such as pasties, sandwiches, cheese and breads. These days, it is often referred to as dinner or supper.
Etiquette
When adding sugar or milk to the tea, you do not stir with the spoon, but rather gently fold the tea two or three times. A used teaspoon should be placed on the right side of the saucer. Never raise your saucer unless you are standing while drinking tea. Do not add cream to tea. Milk is fine, typically poured in after the tea. Lemon slices, not wedges, are an acceptable accompaniment, but lemon cannot be added to tea that has milk because it causes curdling.
Ancient British Farmhouses
Mary Arden's Farm
Mary Arden's Farm (Station Road, Wilmcote, Stratford-upon-Avon, CV37 9UN) is the childhood home of Mary Arden, who was the mother of the famous English poet and playwright, Shakespeare. This real working Tudor farm is open to the public, allowing visitors to step back in time to 1570s England and take part in some of the daily activities. These include basket-weaving, bread-making and tending to the animals, some of which are rare breeds, all under the guidance of actors dressed in traditional Tudor clothing. Throughout the year, the farm hosts Tudor weekends, which include music, dancing and cooking.
Ty Mawr Wymbrant
Ty Mawr Wymbrant (Penmachno, Betws-y-Coed, Conwy, LL25 0HJ) is a traditional stone-built 16th Century farm house located in the Conwy Valley in Wales. It is the birthplace of Bishop William Morgan, who was the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh. As well as discovering how people lived without the comforts we take for granted today, visitors can also explore a collection of bibles in more than 100 languages in the exhibition room, take a walk down a woodland animal trail and listen to introductory talks.
Mary Arden's Farm (Station Road, Wilmcote, Stratford-upon-Avon, CV37 9UN) is the childhood home of Mary Arden, who was the mother of the famous English poet and playwright, Shakespeare. This real working Tudor farm is open to the public, allowing visitors to step back in time to 1570s England and take part in some of the daily activities. These include basket-weaving, bread-making and tending to the animals, some of which are rare breeds, all under the guidance of actors dressed in traditional Tudor clothing. Throughout the year, the farm hosts Tudor weekends, which include music, dancing and cooking.
Ty Mawr Wymbrant
Ty Mawr Wymbrant (Penmachno, Betws-y-Coed, Conwy, LL25 0HJ) is a traditional stone-built 16th Century farm house located in the Conwy Valley in Wales. It is the birthplace of Bishop William Morgan, who was the first person to translate the Bible into Welsh. As well as discovering how people lived without the comforts we take for granted today, visitors can also explore a collection of bibles in more than 100 languages in the exhibition room, take a walk down a woodland animal trail and listen to introductory talks.
Great Sloncombe Farm
Great Sloncombe Farm (greatsloncombefarm.co.uk) is a listed,13th Century granite- and cob-built, traditional Devon dairy farm situated in rural Dartmoor in Devon. Today, the property is a guest house, having been sympathetically restored with traditional furnishings, to make the most of the traditional features, such as oak beams and timbers, granite fireplaces and sloping floors and crooked walls. Surrounded by meadows and farmland, visitors can observe the newborn Aberdeen Angus calves that are born in the spring, along with a host of other local animals, birds and insects.
Butser Ancient Farm
Butser Ancient Farm (butserancientfarm.co.uk) is located near Petersfield in Hampshire and is an archaeological open air museum. Open to the public, the main reason for this reconstructed prehistoric village is to allow archaeologists to learn more about the agricultural and domestic British life, from the late Iron Age to Romano-British periods. Some of the reconstructed buildings on the site include a Roman villa, Iron Age roundhouses, a granary, a forge and an Iron Age toilet.
Great Sloncombe Farm (greatsloncombefarm.co.uk) is a listed,13th Century granite- and cob-built, traditional Devon dairy farm situated in rural Dartmoor in Devon. Today, the property is a guest house, having been sympathetically restored with traditional furnishings, to make the most of the traditional features, such as oak beams and timbers, granite fireplaces and sloping floors and crooked walls. Surrounded by meadows and farmland, visitors can observe the newborn Aberdeen Angus calves that are born in the spring, along with a host of other local animals, birds and insects.
Butser Ancient Farm
Butser Ancient Farm (butserancientfarm.co.uk) is located near Petersfield in Hampshire and is an archaeological open air museum. Open to the public, the main reason for this reconstructed prehistoric village is to allow archaeologists to learn more about the agricultural and domestic British life, from the late Iron Age to Romano-British periods. Some of the reconstructed buildings on the site include a Roman villa, Iron Age roundhouses, a granary, a forge and an Iron Age toilet.
British Bankruptcy Law
History
The history of British bankruptcy law extends back to the middle ages in feudal England. At first, lords held the many sections of the country and their bankruptcy laws revolved around imprisonment in the 1200s. As commerce increased along with the frequency and popularity of contracts, bankruptcy law began to evolve with the need for legal debt solutions. By the 1500s, bankruptcy laws took shape into a crude resemblance of what most countries hold as standard bankruptcy laws. However, early bankruptcy laws were designed to protect the interest of creditors, whereas over the years laws have been changed to protect debtors.
Types
Bankruptcy laws in Britain revolve around two types: voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary bankruptcy filings are declared by an individual on their own accord to make an attempt at consolidating debt. Involuntary bankruptcies entail one or more creditors that attempt to force an individual into a bankruptcy in order to collect debts they are owed. Bankruptcies in the UK revolve around individuals and partnerships and help resolve insolvency cases. In addition to bankruptcy, the government allows debtors the option of an individual voluntary arrangements or IVAs, which let debtors pay a small portion of what they owe to their creditors much like the US
The history of British bankruptcy law extends back to the middle ages in feudal England. At first, lords held the many sections of the country and their bankruptcy laws revolved around imprisonment in the 1200s. As commerce increased along with the frequency and popularity of contracts, bankruptcy law began to evolve with the need for legal debt solutions. By the 1500s, bankruptcy laws took shape into a crude resemblance of what most countries hold as standard bankruptcy laws. However, early bankruptcy laws were designed to protect the interest of creditors, whereas over the years laws have been changed to protect debtors.
Types
Bankruptcy laws in Britain revolve around two types: voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary bankruptcy filings are declared by an individual on their own accord to make an attempt at consolidating debt. Involuntary bankruptcies entail one or more creditors that attempt to force an individual into a bankruptcy in order to collect debts they are owed. Bankruptcies in the UK revolve around individuals and partnerships and help resolve insolvency cases. In addition to bankruptcy, the government allows debtors the option of an individual voluntary arrangements or IVAs, which let debtors pay a small portion of what they owe to their creditors much like the US
chapter 13 bankruptcy filing.
Effects
Bankruptcy laws in the UK are lax compared to many other countries. The effects of bankruptcy laws in the UK have often increased credit problems and attributed to countrywide financial problems. According to Grainne Gilmore and Gary Duncan of the UK published Sunday Times, the fact that bankruptcy periods are as short as 12 months causes a large amount of financial strain on creditors and financing agents.
Significance
The significance of British bankruptcy laws carries over to many aspects of the UK’s economy and affects the markets of many countries. Bankruptcy in the UK affects consumers by forcing them to turn over assets to officials for creditor dispersion.
Officials
Several officials carry out the many tasks in a bankruptcy along with providing assistance for debtors. Insolvency practitioners hold authorization from the Department of Business Innovation and Skills and specialize in disposing of assets and sending payments to creditors. Official receivers are appointed by the secretary of state and are considered officers of the court. Official receivers administer the bankruptcy and have the ability to act as a trustee in the absence of an insolvency practitioner.
Bankruptcy laws in the UK are lax compared to many other countries. The effects of bankruptcy laws in the UK have often increased credit problems and attributed to countrywide financial problems. According to Grainne Gilmore and Gary Duncan of the UK published Sunday Times, the fact that bankruptcy periods are as short as 12 months causes a large amount of financial strain on creditors and financing agents.
Significance
The significance of British bankruptcy laws carries over to many aspects of the UK’s economy and affects the markets of many countries. Bankruptcy in the UK affects consumers by forcing them to turn over assets to officials for creditor dispersion.
Officials
Several officials carry out the many tasks in a bankruptcy along with providing assistance for debtors. Insolvency practitioners hold authorization from the Department of Business Innovation and Skills and specialize in disposing of assets and sending payments to creditors. Official receivers are appointed by the secretary of state and are considered officers of the court. Official receivers administer the bankruptcy and have the ability to act as a trustee in the absence of an insolvency practitioner.
Learn How to Correctly Do The Banana Diet
1- Avoid sugar, alcohol, and diet drinks which can create sugar cravings and stall weight loss.
2- Breakfast:
For breakfast you can have 1 banana with a glass of water. This can then be followed with a small healthy breakfast, that preferably contains protein.
3- Lunch:
Start off with 1 banana with a glass of water. Then you can have a small healthy lunch that includes some type of protein.
2- Breakfast:
For breakfast you can have 1 banana with a glass of water. This can then be followed with a small healthy breakfast, that preferably contains protein.
3- Lunch:
Start off with 1 banana with a glass of water. Then you can have a small healthy lunch that includes some type of protein.
4- Dinner:
Have a banana along with a glass of water. You can then follow this with a small healthy dinner that includes protein.
5- Portion control:
For this weight loss plan to work you do need to practice portion control. But the banana that you eat before each meal does make it easier by taking the edge off your hunger.
6- Exercise:
The original diet doesn't call for exercise, but to achieve more effective weight loss you should always strive for at least thirty minutes of some type of exercise each day.
* You are allowed one small snack each day in the afternoon.
* Be sure to take a multi vitamin to make sure that you're receiving the proper nutrients.
Have a banana along with a glass of water. You can then follow this with a small healthy dinner that includes protein.
5- Portion control:
For this weight loss plan to work you do need to practice portion control. But the banana that you eat before each meal does make it easier by taking the edge off your hunger.
6- Exercise:
The original diet doesn't call for exercise, but to achieve more effective weight loss you should always strive for at least thirty minutes of some type of exercise each day.
* You are allowed one small snack each day in the afternoon.
* Be sure to take a multi vitamin to make sure that you're receiving the proper nutrients.
The first Atlantic telegraph message
What were the first telegraph messages sent across the Atlantic Ocean?
The laying of the telegraph cable under the Atlantic Ocean to connect America with Europe was beset with technological and mechanical problems.
The first attempt was made in August 1857 by the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Both Ireland and Newfoundland had already been connected by cable from London and New York respectively, so the next step was across the Atlantic.
The ship carrying the cable left Valentia Bay, Ireland, but after 334 miles the cable parted on board and after attempts to locate it by grappling, only the first 50 miles of the cable could be recovered. The project was abandoned until the following year.
The next attempt was made in June 1858. Two ships, the British ship Agamemnon and the American ship Niagara met in mid-Atlantic, they spliced the cable, and began to lay it out as they steamed towards their respective countries. The cable broke twice, and after the second break they had to refuel.
The laying of the telegraph cable under the Atlantic Ocean to connect America with Europe was beset with technological and mechanical problems.
The first attempt was made in August 1857 by the Atlantic Telegraph Company. Both Ireland and Newfoundland had already been connected by cable from London and New York respectively, so the next step was across the Atlantic.
The ship carrying the cable left Valentia Bay, Ireland, but after 334 miles the cable parted on board and after attempts to locate it by grappling, only the first 50 miles of the cable could be recovered. The project was abandoned until the following year.
The next attempt was made in June 1858. Two ships, the British ship Agamemnon and the American ship Niagara met in mid-Atlantic, they spliced the cable, and began to lay it out as they steamed towards their respective countries. The cable broke twice, and after the second break they had to refuel.
On 29 July once again they met in mid-Atlantic and spliced the cable, then set off for their destinations. Agamemnon arrived in Valentia Bay after 813 nautical miles, and Niagara in Newfoundland after 882 nautical miles. The cable was then attached to the respective apparatus. The cable extended for 2,050 nautical miles.
Between 10 and 16 August the cable was tested and letters of the alphabet and short messages were sent back and forth. But there were problems with the speed and strength of the signals as both sets of engineers struggled to set the apparatus, neither knowing how the other were exactly setting their apparatus. The rate of sending a signal was very slow and signals crossed each other, were not received, or became unintelligible.
Meanwhile the directors of the company were becoming increasingly frustrated by the delays. On 14 August, Newfoundland sent this message, but the effort was wasted. It was not intelligible. Not surprising considering the length of it.
"Newfoundland Saturday. Saward - E. M. Archibald, New York, telegraphs, instructed by Honourable Directors Atlantic Telegraph Company, and Directors New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company, to state that unexplained delay injuries interests both companies. I replied - cause not passing messages - that instruments require great care and adjustments. Doing fast possible. You should not look on cable as on ordinary short line, as we encounter many little difficulties, but think all soon overcome."
After more testing, on 16 August it was thought that official messages could now be sent. The following message was successfully sent and received both ways.
"Directors of Atlantic Telegraph Company, Great Britain, to Directors in America:- Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest; on earth peace and good will towards men."
Later that day, and repeated the next day, a message was sent from Queen Victoria to James Buchanan, the President of the United States. This, and later wordy message of congratulations, caused great problems to the operators because of their length.
On the 19th a message was sent from Newfoundland to Cunard in Liverpool concerning one of their ships involved in an collision, and later that day, a message from the President of the United States was successfully sent to Queen Victoria. Later messages were exchanged between the Mayors of New York and London.
The value of the telegraph proved itself on 31 August when the British Government sent a message to General Trollope in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to the effect that a regiment of the British army was not to return to Britain. It was estimated that this saved the government £50,000 in shipment and transportation of troops.
In both countries there were great celebrations over the success of the cable laying and the establishment of communication between the two countries. But this was short lived. In early September the cable failed and it could not be repaired.
Several more attempts were made to lay new cables, but it was not until 1866 that an improved cable and apparatus was successfully working. America and Europe were now permanently connected by telegraph and the speed of news now reduced from weeks to hours.
Between 10 and 16 August the cable was tested and letters of the alphabet and short messages were sent back and forth. But there were problems with the speed and strength of the signals as both sets of engineers struggled to set the apparatus, neither knowing how the other were exactly setting their apparatus. The rate of sending a signal was very slow and signals crossed each other, were not received, or became unintelligible.
Meanwhile the directors of the company were becoming increasingly frustrated by the delays. On 14 August, Newfoundland sent this message, but the effort was wasted. It was not intelligible. Not surprising considering the length of it.
"Newfoundland Saturday. Saward - E. M. Archibald, New York, telegraphs, instructed by Honourable Directors Atlantic Telegraph Company, and Directors New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company, to state that unexplained delay injuries interests both companies. I replied - cause not passing messages - that instruments require great care and adjustments. Doing fast possible. You should not look on cable as on ordinary short line, as we encounter many little difficulties, but think all soon overcome."
After more testing, on 16 August it was thought that official messages could now be sent. The following message was successfully sent and received both ways.
"Directors of Atlantic Telegraph Company, Great Britain, to Directors in America:- Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest; on earth peace and good will towards men."
Later that day, and repeated the next day, a message was sent from Queen Victoria to James Buchanan, the President of the United States. This, and later wordy message of congratulations, caused great problems to the operators because of their length.
On the 19th a message was sent from Newfoundland to Cunard in Liverpool concerning one of their ships involved in an collision, and later that day, a message from the President of the United States was successfully sent to Queen Victoria. Later messages were exchanged between the Mayors of New York and London.
The value of the telegraph proved itself on 31 August when the British Government sent a message to General Trollope in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to the effect that a regiment of the British army was not to return to Britain. It was estimated that this saved the government £50,000 in shipment and transportation of troops.
In both countries there were great celebrations over the success of the cable laying and the establishment of communication between the two countries. But this was short lived. In early September the cable failed and it could not be repaired.
Several more attempts were made to lay new cables, but it was not until 1866 that an improved cable and apparatus was successfully working. America and Europe were now permanently connected by telegraph and the speed of news now reduced from weeks to hours.
The Clerkenwell Explosion
An unsuccessful prison escape in which twelve bystanders were killed.
In the 1867, the Fenian movement in Ireland were seeking the establishment of an independent Irish Republic. To these ends the Irish Republican Brotherhood carried out a poorly organised rebellion in Ireland, supported by raids from America into Canada, and planned attacks in Britain.
One of the Fenian supporters was Ricard O’Sullivan Burke, born in Kenneigh, Ireland, who had travelled to the Americas and eventually served with the Union Army during the American Civil War. After the war he travelled to Ireland to give advice on military tactics and to take part in the rebellion. He was dubbed with the title of 'Colonel'. He then travelled to Britain to purchase arms and help plan a rescue attempt of arrested Fenian supporters in Manchester in which a policeman was killed. He was later arrested and placed in Clerkenwell House of Detention, London, awaiting his trial.
A plan was hatched to release Burke and another Fenian prisoner while they were walking in the exercise yard. News of this was leaked to the police who confined the prisoners to their cells, which in view of the later events, saved their lives.
In the 1867, the Fenian movement in Ireland were seeking the establishment of an independent Irish Republic. To these ends the Irish Republican Brotherhood carried out a poorly organised rebellion in Ireland, supported by raids from America into Canada, and planned attacks in Britain.
One of the Fenian supporters was Ricard O’Sullivan Burke, born in Kenneigh, Ireland, who had travelled to the Americas and eventually served with the Union Army during the American Civil War. After the war he travelled to Ireland to give advice on military tactics and to take part in the rebellion. He was dubbed with the title of 'Colonel'. He then travelled to Britain to purchase arms and help plan a rescue attempt of arrested Fenian supporters in Manchester in which a policeman was killed. He was later arrested and placed in Clerkenwell House of Detention, London, awaiting his trial.
A plan was hatched to release Burke and another Fenian prisoner while they were walking in the exercise yard. News of this was leaked to the police who confined the prisoners to their cells, which in view of the later events, saved their lives.
On 13 December 1867, police, both uniform and plain-clothes, patrolled the outer walls of the prison, but they failed to stop a man pushing a large barrel near to the wall and igniting its contents which contained gunpowder. Far too much for the purposes it was required. The explosion knocked down nearby houses, shattered windows, and the thick outer wall of the prison collapsed with bricks and debris flung in all directions. Four people were immediately killed, eight died later of their wounds and at least another 120 injured, including many children. After the explosion the army were called out to assist in securing the prison perimeter.
At a trial at the Old Bailey, six people were charged with murder but only Michael Barrett was convicted and became the last person to be publicly hanged in Britain
Following the explosion there was strong anti-Irish feeling both in government and in the population in general, and the police were strongly criticised for failing to stop the atrocity.
At a trial at the Old Bailey, six people were charged with murder but only Michael Barrett was convicted and became the last person to be publicly hanged in Britain
Following the explosion there was strong anti-Irish feeling both in government and in the population in general, and the police were strongly criticised for failing to stop the atrocity.
How did Scotland Yard get its name?
The origin of the name of the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London.
Scotland Yard is the name popularly given to the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police, the police force responsible for policing the majority of Greater London with the exception of the City of London and London's underground and railways. The force headquarters now occupies a building known as New Scotland Yard, in Broadway, SW1. This building was only occupied by the police in 1967, so the name has a much earlier origin.
The name Scotland Yard comes from its very earliest days, soon after the establishment of the police force in London in 1829. The first Metropolitan Police station was opened on 6 October 1829 in a street called Great Scotland Yard and was at the rear of 4 Whitehall Place which served as the office of the two newly appointed police commissioners.
Scotland Yard is the name popularly given to the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police, the police force responsible for policing the majority of Greater London with the exception of the City of London and London's underground and railways. The force headquarters now occupies a building known as New Scotland Yard, in Broadway, SW1. This building was only occupied by the police in 1967, so the name has a much earlier origin.
The name Scotland Yard comes from its very earliest days, soon after the establishment of the police force in London in 1829. The first Metropolitan Police station was opened on 6 October 1829 in a street called Great Scotland Yard and was at the rear of 4 Whitehall Place which served as the office of the two newly appointed police commissioners.
The origin of the name Scotland Yard (both Great and Little) is unknown, but may be named after a former landowner or a connection with the Kings of Scotland. The name was in use by the 17th century. The area can be seen on this 1834 map.
By 1830, The Times newspaper was referring to the police at 'Scotland Yard', and it being the 'home station' of the police and that of the Chief Police Officer [2], and it is clear from other sources of the time that almost from its earliest days the headquarters was known as Scotland Yard.
As the police force expanded and the number of 'peelers' or 'bobbies' increased, new buildings in Great Scotland Yard and Whitehall Place were taken over, but it became clear that this miscellaneous collection of buildings was not suitable for the force.
In 1884 the area was targeted by Irish Republicans and the area was damaged by a bomb - see print above.
In 1890 the government purchased a new site for the police headquarters on Victoria Embankment. The new building was designed by Richard Norman Shaw and was the first public building in its entirety to be lit by electricity. [3] This electricity was provided by its own generator, thus freeing it from any interruption to its telegraph and later its 999 emergency system. This building became known as the New Scotland Yard.
When this building in turn became unfit for purpose, the name was transferred to the new building in 1967.
[1] The Times 7 October 1829
[2] The Times 9 October 1830, 9 November 1830, 26 April 1836, and many others.
[3] The Times, 6 June 1891
By 1830, The Times newspaper was referring to the police at 'Scotland Yard', and it being the 'home station' of the police and that of the Chief Police Officer [2], and it is clear from other sources of the time that almost from its earliest days the headquarters was known as Scotland Yard.
As the police force expanded and the number of 'peelers' or 'bobbies' increased, new buildings in Great Scotland Yard and Whitehall Place were taken over, but it became clear that this miscellaneous collection of buildings was not suitable for the force.
In 1884 the area was targeted by Irish Republicans and the area was damaged by a bomb - see print above.
In 1890 the government purchased a new site for the police headquarters on Victoria Embankment. The new building was designed by Richard Norman Shaw and was the first public building in its entirety to be lit by electricity. [3] This electricity was provided by its own generator, thus freeing it from any interruption to its telegraph and later its 999 emergency system. This building became known as the New Scotland Yard.
When this building in turn became unfit for purpose, the name was transferred to the new building in 1967.
[1] The Times 7 October 1829
[2] The Times 9 October 1830, 9 November 1830, 26 April 1836, and many others.
[3] The Times, 6 June 1891
The first road traffic lights
Traffic lights are everywhere, but when was the first one placed on Britain's roads?
The first road traffic signals were in operation in London in December 1868, several decades before the invention of the motor car. Traffic jams were not unusual in London's bustling city streets with horse-drawn carts and drays, hansom cabs, omnibuses, and pedestrians clogging the city streets. A journey through London was also complicated by the many road-works for a new sewer system and the overground and underground railways.
As an experiment to assess their effectiveness in dealing with London's traffic, traffic signals were erected just outside the Houses of Parliament at the junctions of Bridge Street, Abingdon Street and Parliament Street. The traffic signal design was proposed by John Peake Knight, an engineer and manager of the London Brighton and South-Coast Railway and based on the signals used on the railway. They were constructed by the firm of Messrs. Farmer and Saxby. Permission to conduct the experiment was authorised by the Home Office and Sir Richard Mayne, the Police Commissioner.
The first road traffic signals were in operation in London in December 1868, several decades before the invention of the motor car. Traffic jams were not unusual in London's bustling city streets with horse-drawn carts and drays, hansom cabs, omnibuses, and pedestrians clogging the city streets. A journey through London was also complicated by the many road-works for a new sewer system and the overground and underground railways.
As an experiment to assess their effectiveness in dealing with London's traffic, traffic signals were erected just outside the Houses of Parliament at the junctions of Bridge Street, Abingdon Street and Parliament Street. The traffic signal design was proposed by John Peake Knight, an engineer and manager of the London Brighton and South-Coast Railway and based on the signals used on the railway. They were constructed by the firm of Messrs. Farmer and Saxby. Permission to conduct the experiment was authorised by the Home Office and Sir Richard Mayne, the Police Commissioner.
Four policeman already controlled traffic at the junction, but their services were not to be dispensed with until the experiment was over or deemed a success. An additional officer was required to operate the signals. The signals were mounted on an octagonal pillar about 22 feet in height. Lights of red and green were lit by a lamp fed by a gas pipe, and there were three red semaphore arms. The officer by means of a handle, moved the arms up and down, and changed the colour of the lights. The semaphore arm for day-time use, the lights for night-time.
Despite some advance warnings and the distribution of leaflets, one newspaper reported that most drivers ignored the signals particularly when the lights and arms were raised at caution, either through ignorance of the system used in railway signalling, or intent on only following directions of one of the officers who found themselves still having to direct the traffic. Other observers, however, thought it was a success. [1]
It became a short-lived experiment, for shortly after the gas pipe leaked and the lamp exploded seriously injuring the policeman. The experiment was not repeated again.
[1] The Morning Post (London), Tuesday, December 15, 1868
Despite some advance warnings and the distribution of leaflets, one newspaper reported that most drivers ignored the signals particularly when the lights and arms were raised at caution, either through ignorance of the system used in railway signalling, or intent on only following directions of one of the officers who found themselves still having to direct the traffic. Other observers, however, thought it was a success. [1]
It became a short-lived experiment, for shortly after the gas pipe leaked and the lamp exploded seriously injuring the policeman. The experiment was not repeated again.
[1] The Morning Post (London), Tuesday, December 15, 1868
The railway navvy: reckless, desperate, violent characters?
Why the arrival of the railway would create panic in a neighbourhood.
The construction of canals and docks in 18th and 19th century Britain made an important contribution to the industrial revolution. A workforce of thousands of labouring men was required to dig the docks and canals, which were also called navigations. These labouring men became known as Navigators or Navvies for short (sometimes spelt Navies, or later referred to as Bankers).
With the advent of the railways and the railway mania from the 1830s to the 1850s, thousands of miles of railway tracks were laid down across the country with navvies employed in their construction.
Social observers of the time noted the workforce consisted of three types of labourers: labourers from the local district who were out of work; wandering labourers, often from Ireland; and a permanent group of labourers who had been employed in building the canals and railways for years.
The construction of canals and docks in 18th and 19th century Britain made an important contribution to the industrial revolution. A workforce of thousands of labouring men was required to dig the docks and canals, which were also called navigations. These labouring men became known as Navigators or Navvies for short (sometimes spelt Navies, or later referred to as Bankers).
With the advent of the railways and the railway mania from the 1830s to the 1850s, thousands of miles of railway tracks were laid down across the country with navvies employed in their construction.
Social observers of the time noted the workforce consisted of three types of labourers: labourers from the local district who were out of work; wandering labourers, often from Ireland; and a permanent group of labourers who had been employed in building the canals and railways for years.
Using their own muscles and the simple tools of spades, pick-axes and wheelbarrows, the work was very hard with little assistance from machines. They were rewarded with higher wages, but it was a hard life for hard men. They lived in temporary camps, tents, or lodged in nearby houses; some took their families with them. They had a reputation for drunkenness, immorality, fighting and crime. What would be described today as anti-social behaviour.
The arrival of hundreds of navvies in an area would create fear and panic among many of the locals, especially the middle and upper classes. They feared, as one newspaper reported, they would be descended upon by "reckless, desperate, violent characters, who are restrained by no principle from the commission of crime". [1] Their living conditions also produce alarm. "The condition of the temporary colonies of navigators is frightful; they live in a kind of promiscuous brutality to which forethought, decorum, or even common decency is truly unknown - both sexes huddled together in the rudest profligacy, dirt and riot." [2]
The social control of the navvies worried the Victorians. They saw in the navvies a lack of religious observance, alcoholism, diseases, and little schooling of their children. The newspapers and books of the time contain many discussions as to how the police, local magistrates, parishes, churchman and middle-class social reformers should deal with the problem.
Looking back it is difficult to state how anti-social the navvies actually were. But it may be that the fear of them was far greater that what they actually did.
After the railways were built, the term navvy became used to describe a road builder or any other labourer involved in the construction industry, earthworks or excavation.
[1] The Cornwall Royal Gazette, Falmouth Packet and Plymouth Journal 21 March 1845
[2] Daily News, Monday, 9 March 1846
The arrival of hundreds of navvies in an area would create fear and panic among many of the locals, especially the middle and upper classes. They feared, as one newspaper reported, they would be descended upon by "reckless, desperate, violent characters, who are restrained by no principle from the commission of crime". [1] Their living conditions also produce alarm. "The condition of the temporary colonies of navigators is frightful; they live in a kind of promiscuous brutality to which forethought, decorum, or even common decency is truly unknown - both sexes huddled together in the rudest profligacy, dirt and riot." [2]
The social control of the navvies worried the Victorians. They saw in the navvies a lack of religious observance, alcoholism, diseases, and little schooling of their children. The newspapers and books of the time contain many discussions as to how the police, local magistrates, parishes, churchman and middle-class social reformers should deal with the problem.
Looking back it is difficult to state how anti-social the navvies actually were. But it may be that the fear of them was far greater that what they actually did.
After the railways were built, the term navvy became used to describe a road builder or any other labourer involved in the construction industry, earthworks or excavation.
[1] The Cornwall Royal Gazette, Falmouth Packet and Plymouth Journal 21 March 1845
[2] Daily News, Monday, 9 March 1846
Which British Prime Ministers took part in duels?
A question of honour.
The House of Commons is the venue of a great deal of political cut and thrust. But can you imagine the country's reaction if our present-day Prime Minster took part in a duel as a result of what was said by them, or about them, or their policies? It may seem amazing to us now, but two serving British Prime Ministers took part in duels.
On 27 May 1798, at the height of the war between Britain and revolutionary France, Prime Minster William Pitt fought a duel on Putney Common, London, against George Tierney, Member of Parliament, Treasurer of the Navy, President of the Board of Control, and Master of the Mint. The duel arose from a statement in Parliament made by Pitt which Tierney interpreted as a comment on his personal courage and 'a desire to obstruct the defence of the country'.
The duel took place on a Sunday which generated much criticism against Pitt. Both parties fired and missed. It was observed at the time that it was slightly unequal as Pitt was a very thin man while Tierney was very fat, thus making him the larger target. Satisfaction met on both sides, the two men withdrew.
The House of Commons is the venue of a great deal of political cut and thrust. But can you imagine the country's reaction if our present-day Prime Minster took part in a duel as a result of what was said by them, or about them, or their policies? It may seem amazing to us now, but two serving British Prime Ministers took part in duels.
On 27 May 1798, at the height of the war between Britain and revolutionary France, Prime Minster William Pitt fought a duel on Putney Common, London, against George Tierney, Member of Parliament, Treasurer of the Navy, President of the Board of Control, and Master of the Mint. The duel arose from a statement in Parliament made by Pitt which Tierney interpreted as a comment on his personal courage and 'a desire to obstruct the defence of the country'.
The duel took place on a Sunday which generated much criticism against Pitt. Both parties fired and missed. It was observed at the time that it was slightly unequal as Pitt was a very thin man while Tierney was very fat, thus making him the larger target. Satisfaction met on both sides, the two men withdrew.
Just over 30 years later on the morning of 23 March 1829, Battersea Fields in South London was the scene of a duel between the Earl of Winchelsea and the Duke of Wellington, former commander of the victorious allied army at the Battle of Waterloo and victor of several battles of the Peninsular War against Napoleon, and since 1828, the Prime Minister of Britain.
The Tory Government had passed the Catholic Relief Bill, a contentious Act to improve Catholic emancipation and which permitted Catholics to take a seat in Parliament. Wellington had been previously against Catholic emancipation but circumstances in Ireland and fear of rebellion forced him to change his views and push the Act through Parliament.
The Earl of Winchelsea, a staunch Protestant, in correspondence later published in the Standard newspaper, effectively accused Wellington of deception in his patronage of the Anglican King's College and with intent to 'carry on his insidious designs for the infringement of our liberties, and the introduction of Popery into every department of the state'.
Wellington, by the code of honour of the time, felt insulted and correspondence between the Duke and the Earl failed to resolve the issue and produced no apology.
The parties and their seconds met in the early morning on Battersea Fields (among the cabbages, as the Morning Herald observered). The Duke of Wellington fired first, but without effect. The Earl then discharged his pistol in the air. With both party's honour satisfied, the Earl then tendered a retraction and an apology which the Duke accepted. The press of time were extremely critical of the need for a duel to take place involving the Prime Minster.
Fortunately, nowadays duelling is no longer a way to settle a matter of honour, and Prime Ministers do not have to worry about pistols at dawn.
The Tory Government had passed the Catholic Relief Bill, a contentious Act to improve Catholic emancipation and which permitted Catholics to take a seat in Parliament. Wellington had been previously against Catholic emancipation but circumstances in Ireland and fear of rebellion forced him to change his views and push the Act through Parliament.
The Earl of Winchelsea, a staunch Protestant, in correspondence later published in the Standard newspaper, effectively accused Wellington of deception in his patronage of the Anglican King's College and with intent to 'carry on his insidious designs for the infringement of our liberties, and the introduction of Popery into every department of the state'.
Wellington, by the code of honour of the time, felt insulted and correspondence between the Duke and the Earl failed to resolve the issue and produced no apology.
The parties and their seconds met in the early morning on Battersea Fields (among the cabbages, as the Morning Herald observered). The Duke of Wellington fired first, but without effect. The Earl then discharged his pistol in the air. With both party's honour satisfied, the Earl then tendered a retraction and an apology which the Duke accepted. The press of time were extremely critical of the need for a duel to take place involving the Prime Minster.
Fortunately, nowadays duelling is no longer a way to settle a matter of honour, and Prime Ministers do not have to worry about pistols at dawn.
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